At the time of independence, India comprised of two categories of political units:
1. British Province- Under direct rule of British Governemnt
2. Princely States: Under the rule of native prince but subject to para-mountcy of British Crown.
After Independence about 552 princely states were politically integrated into the Indian Union. Most were merged into existing province and others were organised into new province like Madhya Bharat ,Vindhya Pradesh etc.
Note: Hyderabad, Junagarh and J&k refused to join earlier but later on they were integrated with India.
Hyderabd By means of Police action ( Operation Polo)
Junagarh by means of referendum
J&K- by the instrument of accession
Indian constitution declares India a federation as well as a Union. The reorganization of state has been a major issue since independence and it still haunts the nation. While there are differences of opinions on the organization of states on linguistic basis, there have been demands for creation of new states. The country has witnessed a number of movements demanding creation of different states
So far, India has 28 states and seven Union Territories. Telangana will be the 29th state of the country.
History of reorganisation of states:
In 1938, with the formation of the first Congress ministry, the Madras Legislative Assembly recommended the formation of separate Provinces for the Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Kerala regions.
After independence, the demand for the reorganisation of states on linguistic basis was raised from different regions. At that time the constituent units of India were classified under the following distinct categories:
CategoryAdministratorProvinces
Part AAn elected governor and state legislature9 states: Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, United Province(U.P.), West Bengal
Part BRajpramukh(Former Princes)9 states: Hyderabad, Jammu &Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Travancore-Cochin, Vindhya Pradesh
Part CChief Commissioner10 States: Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Cooch-Behar, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Manipur, Tripura
Part DGovernor appointed by Indian President1 state: Andaman &Nicobar Islands
At that time different languages speaking people reside in the same state. They gradually demanded separate states based on similar languages. Demands raised particularly in Madras and Bombay provinces.
But In constitutional assembly debate during 1947-48 Congress completely denied the formation of states on linguistic basis concerning that the states formed solely on a linguistic basis might be unsuitable, and might even pose a risk to the national unity.
S. K. Dhar committee:
But seeing the agitation in south India particularly, S. K. Dhar committee ( Linguistic Province Commission) was set up in June 1948 to recommend whether the states should be reorganized on linguistic basis or not.
The Commission recommended that "the formation of provinces on exclusively or even mainly linguistic considerations is not in the larger interests of the Indian nation". The commission in its report recommended against the organisation of states purely on linguistic basis. Instead, the commission suggested the following criteria -1. Geographical contiguity2. Financial self-reliance3. Administrative viability4. Potential for development
JVP committee:
Soon JVP committee (members were Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallahbhai Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramyya .) was formed in 1949 . The committee defer the reorganisation of states on linguistic basis by 10 years. It opposed the linguistic basis, but said: If public sentiment is overwhelming, we as democrats have to submit to it.So it conceded the demand of separate Telgu speaking state but Madras city to be excluded.
By the 1952, the demand for creation of a Telugu-majority state in the parts of theMadras Statehad become powerful, Potti Sreeramulu one of the activists demanding the formation of a Telugu-majority state with Madras as its capital, died on 16 December 1952 after undertaking fast unto death. The Government of India appointed in December 1952 a committee under Justice K.N. Wanchoo. Wanchoos report, submitted in early February 1953, favoured the creation of the 1st linguistic state- Andhra state and recommended that, until a new capital was built, the Andhra government could be lodged in Chennai. Thus the Telugu-majorityAndhra Statewas formed in October, 1953.
State Reorganisation Commission (S.R.C.):
The creation of Andhra state intensified the demand from other regions for creation of states on linguistic basis. This forced the Govt to appoint a S.R.C.
After 2 months of formation of Andhra state on 22 December 1953, GOI formed state reorganisation commission (S.R.C). The commission was headed by JusticeFazal Aliso it was called Fazal Ali Commission. The other members of the commission were Hriday Nath Kunzru and K M Panikkar. S.R.C was given 2 years time period to submit its report.
In the meantime demand for separate states in Bombay province erupted.
3 types of contender:
1. Marathi speaking people for separate Maharashtra state with Bombay as its capital. (sanyukta maharashtra samiti)
2. Guajarati speaking people for separate Gujarat state with Bombay as its capital
3. Bombay Citizen Committee for separate Bombay state with both Guajarati and Marathi speaking people. It includes mainly businessmen like J. R. D Tata.
S.R.C report submitted on 30 September 1955. It broadly accepted language as the basis of reorganisation of states. It completely changed Indias Geography.
Major recommendations of report:
1. The three-tier (Part-A/B/C) state system should be abolished.
2. Indian union to be constituted of 16 states as against the existing 29 and there should be 3 centrally ministered territories i.e. Andaman & Nicobar, Delhi and Manipur. The other Part-C/D territories should be merged with the adjoining states
3. The institution of Rajapramukh and special agreement with former princely states should be abolished
4. To recognise linguistic homogeneity as important factor but not to consider it as an exclusive and binding principle;
5. To ensure that communicational, educational and cultural needs of different language groups are adequately met;
6. where satisfactory conditions exist, and the balance of economic, political and administrative considerations favour composite States, to continue them with the necessary safeguards to ensure that all sections enjoy equal rights and opportunities;
7. It rejected the theory of 'one language one State.
8. Reconstitution of central All India Services. At least 50% of new entrants to all India service and at least one third of number of judges in High Court should be recruited from outside the sates for the interest of national unity.
In Part II of Report of SRC 1955, titled Factors Bearing on Reorganization, the Commission clearly said that it is neither possible nor desirable to reorganise States on the basis of the single test of either language or culture, but that a balanced approach to the whole problem is necessary in the interest of our national unity. It considers economic integrity and geographical contiguity along with linguistic basis.
S.R.C identifies 4 major factors to be taken in account while reorganising states:
1. Preservation and strengthening of unity and integrity of country
2. Linguistic and cultural homogeneity
3. Financial, economic and Administrative considerations
4. Planning and promotion of welfare of people in each state as well as of the nation as a whole.
7th Constitutional amendment for implementing S.R.C recommendations:
The States Reorganisation Act was enacted on 31 August 1956. Before it came into effect on 1 November, an important amendment to the Constitution was also enacted. Under the Seventh Amendment, the existing distinction among Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D states was abolished. The distinction between Part A and Part B states was removed, becoming known simply as "states". A new type of entity, the union territory, replaced the classification as a Part C or Part D state. A further Act also came into effect on 1 November, transferring territories from BihartoWest Bengal.
TheStates Reorganisation Actof 1956 implemented some of the recommendations of the SRC. In addition to the three Union Territories (UTs) proposed by the SRC, it also establishedLaccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands,Himachal PradeshandTripuraas UTs. It established a total of 14 states in addition to these 6 UTs.
Many of recommendations that were not accepted like:
1.Separate Vidharbha as a new Marathi state.
2.Separate Telangana from Andhra state. ( At that time if Nehru didnt acted in haste to deny this recommendation of SRC , todays situation of Telangana movement never arised)
3.Demands for separate tribal states, including Jharkhand and Nagaland, were also bypassed.
Territory of India in 1956:
States
1. Andhra Pradesh:Andhra State(formed in oct 1953) was merged with the Telugu-speaking area ofHyderabad stateto create Andhra Pradesh in 1956.
2. Assam: No change of boundary in 1956.
3. Bihar: Reduced slightly by the transfer of minor territories to West Bengal.
4. Bombay State: The state was enlarged by the addition ofSaurashtraandKutch, the Marathi-speaking districts ofNagpur Divisionof Madhya Pradesh, and theMarathwadaregion of Hyderabad. The state's southernmost districts of Bombay were transferred to Mysore State. (In 1960, Bombay State was split intoMaharashtraandGujarat.)
5. Jammu and Kashmir: No change of boundary in 1956.
6. Kerala: Formed by the merger ofTravancore-Cochinstate with theMalabar districtof Madras State,Kasaragodof South Canara (Dakshina Kannada). The southern part ofTravancore-Cochin,Kanyakumari districtwas transferred to Madras State.
7. Madhya Pradesh: Madhya Bharat,Vindhya Pradesh, and Bhopal State were merged into Madhya Pradesh; the Marathi-speaking districts ofNagpur Divisionwere transferred to Bombay State.
8. Madras State: Malabar Districtwas transferred to the new state ofKerala, and a new union territory,Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands, was created. The southern part ofTravancore-Cochin(Kanyakumari district) was added to the state. (The state was renamedTamil Naduin 1968.)
9. Mysore State: enlarged by the addition ofCoorgstate and theKannadaspeaking districts from southern Bombay state and westernHyderabad state. (The state was renamedKarnatakain 1973.)
10. Orissa: No change of boundary in 1956.
11. Punjab: Enlarged by addition of thePatiala and East Punjab States Union.
12. Rajasthan: Enlarged by the addition ofAjmerstate and parts of Bombay and Madhya Bharat states.
13. Uttar Pradesh: No change of boundary in 1956.
14. West Bengal: Enlarged by addition of minor territory previously forming part of Bihar.
Union territories:
15. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2. Delhi
3. Himachal Pradesh
4. Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands: created from territory detached fromMadras State. (The union territory was renamed as Lakshadweep in 1973.)
5. Manipur
6. Tripura
In May 1956, Puducherry became a UT after the French handover.
Gujarat and Maharashtra were born in 1960 by the Mumbai (Reorganisation) Act 1960
In 1961, Goa was liberated.
The government capitulated to the Sikh homeland demand in Punjab. In 1966 the state was divided in 2 parts Punjab and Haryana by the Punjab (Reorganisation) Act, 1966. The status of Chandigarhif it would be the joint capital wasnt settled initially, later the two states agreed to share the city.
Nagaland was carved out of Assam in 1963 by the State of Nagaland Act, 1962
In 1966 Meghalaya was carved out of the same state.
The Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh was elevated to the status of State by the State of Himachal Pradesh Act, 1970
In 1971, Manipur and Tripura were born. Both these States were elevated from the status of Union-Territories by the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act 1971. Also UTs of Sikkim and Arunachal were created.
Sikkim became a full state in 1975 which was till then protectorate of India. Sikkim was first given the Status of Associate State by the 35th Constitutional Amendment Act 1974. It got the status of a full State in 1975 by the 36th Amendment Act, 1975.
In 1987, former Portuguese regions- Goa, Daman and Diu UT split into Goa states and Daman and Diu as UT.
Delhi becomes National Capital Territory in 1992( without being conferred the status of full fledged state) by 69th constitutional amendment Act, 1991
Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and Chhattisgarh created on November 1, 2000 by the Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000.
Now Telangana on the way of becoming 29th states of India.
The Process of Forming a New State:
* Centre refers proposal regarding the creation of a new state to the concerned state legislative assembly
* The State Assembly passes a resolution on the proposal
* If the resolution is passed, the Union Home Ministry prepares a note on the resolution and sends it to the Cabinet for consideration
* If the assembly does not pass or negates the resolution, the Cabinet can take it upon itself to take the issue forward
* The Central government also looks into economic issues like sharing of water, electricity, forests, institutions as well as liabilities and assets within 30 days
* The Law Ministry finalises a Cabinet note with the reorganisation bill based on recommendations of the GoM in 15 days
* The Home Ministry prepares a detailed note in seven days, requesting the president to refer the bill to the state legislature.
* The bill is finally submitted to the Cabinet for approval. Following this, the bill is sent to the assembly for its views in 30 days
* The Law Ministry receives the Cabinet note with recommendations incorporated in draft reorganisation bill; it has to vet it in seven days.
* The Law Ministry sends this bill to the Cabinet in five days.
* Notice for introduction of reorganisation bill is sent to Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha and it should take two days.
* The bill has to be passed by a simple majority in both houses within 15 days.
* It is sent to the president for a final nod and declaration of formation of a new state. This process should take two days.
Various articles of Indian constitution related with states:
Article 2- Admission or establishment of new States: Parliament may by law admit into the Union, or establish, new States on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit.
Article 3 - Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States: Parliament may by law
1.form a new State by separation of territory from any State or by uniting two or more States or parts of States or by uniting any territory to a part of any State;
2.increase the area of any State;
3.diminish the area of any State;
4 alter the boundaries of any State;
5. alter the name of any State;
Provided that Bill for the purpose shall be introduced in either House of Parliament only on the prior recommendation of the President the same has to be referred by the President to the Legislature of that State for expressing its views thereon within a specified period. President is not bound by the views of state legislature and may either accept or reject them.
Article 4-Laws made under Articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters
Any law referred to in article 2 or article 3 shall contain such provisions for the amendment of the First Schedule and the Fourth Schedule as may be necessary.
No such law as aforesaid shall be deemed to be an amendment of this Constitution for the purposes of article 368.
Thus it is clear that Union Govt can destroy the states whereas the state Govt cannot destroy the union. India- an indestructible union of destructible states.
Telangana: 29th State Of India????
NOTE : (Too clichd and POLITICAL topic to be asked so hereby i skipped it and any one can get many pros and cons of creating new Telangana state from articles of Hindu and I.E. )
The demands for separate states from various regions:
In Uttar Pradesh, there have been demands for Awadh Pradesh, Poorvanchal, Bundelkhand and Pachimanchal or Harit Pradesh. Resolution passed in the assembly in 2011.
Gorkhaland, by curving out Darjeeling and its adjoining areas in West Bengal. The Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM) wants aGorkhalandstate.( for more on it see mrunal.org)
Bodoland, comprising Bodo dominated areas in Western Assam, The All Bodo Students Union (Absu) wants theBodolandstate.
Garo regions of Meghalaya (includes 5 districts) are demanding for a new state of Garoland. The Garo Hills State Movement Committee (GHSMC)--a conglomeration of several Garo organisations, including the Garo National Council (GNC), a regional political partydemand aGarolandstate.
Karbi Anglong, comprising the Karbi tribals living areas under Karbi Anglong autonomous district in Assam,
Vidarbha by curving out the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.
Braj Pradesh, consisting of Agra division and Aligarh division of Uttar Pradesh and districts of Bharatpur and Gwalior from Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Bhojpur comprising areas of eastern UP, Bihar and Chhattisgarh
Mithilanchal comprising Maithili speaking regions of Bihar and Jharkhand.
Saurashtra by curving that region out of Gujarat.
Dimaraji or Dimaland comprising the Dimasa inhabited areas of Assam and Nagaland.
Kongu Nadu comprising parts of southwest of Tamil Nadu, southeast of Karnataka and east of Kerala.
Coorg state, comprising the Coorg region of Karnataka
Kosal state comprising some districts of Odisha, parts of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh.
Tulu Nadu comprising a region on the border between Karnataka and Kerala.
Kukiland, comprising Kuki tribal inhabited areas in Manipur
Konkan, comprising Konkani speaking part of Western India along the Arabian sea coastline
Kamtapur comprising some districts West Bengal, including Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri.
Eastern Nagaland by curving out some parts of the Northeastern state.
creation of an Union Territory for Ladakh has also been pending with the Home Ministry.
Food for thought( (Burning Issues of Telangana and Gorkhaland)
1. Are smaller states more efficient?
2. Who benefits from split of states: Mother or Daughter state??
3. Do we need 2nd SRC ? ( Like 2nd ARC ..lolzz)
References:
Pradhanmantri series episode 4 ( ABP news)
Indian Polity by M. Laxmikanth
The Hindu
Preservearticles.com
Random surfing
By:
Nilesh Nayan
Showing posts with label Madhya Pradesh. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Madhya Pradesh. Show all posts
Monday, January 13, 2014
Raghuram Rajan Panel Report
Raghuram Rajan Panel Report
Introduction
Raghuram Rajan Committee was formed to suggest ways to identify indicators of the relative backwardness of the States for equitable allocation of Central funds.It proposes a general method for allocating funds from the Centre to the states based both on a states development needs as well as its development performance. Raghuram Rajan headed panel has been set up by the government to identify criteria to determine a states relative backwardness came out with its report.
Central allocations are governed by the Gadgil-Mukherjee formula that places the greatest weight on the States population, followed by other factors like per capita income and literacy.Rajan Committee has come up with a Multi-Dimensional Index that will help measure backwardness and aid the Centre in allocating funds to states.
Committee Formation
* Committee was formed amid the demands for Special Category status by Bihar, which lags behind the national average on all important indices to fund its development needs. Bihars demand was echoed by other states like Odisha.
* Committee to be constituted, to consider backwardness of the States in terms of measures like distance of the State from the national average under criteria such as per capita income and other human development indicators and for evolving a Composite Development Index of States.
* In his budget speech, Finance Minister had proposed to evolve new criteria and reflect them in future planning and devolution of funds.
Present Condition
* The present criteria for determining backwardness are based on terrain, density of population and length of international borders.
Raghuram Rajan Committee
* Report of the Dr. Raghuram Rajan Committee for Evolving a Composite Development Index of States has been submitted to the Union Finance Minister.
Proposals in the Report
* Any scheme of allocation should take into account both development needs as well as past performance. This committee proposes a general method for allocating funds from Centre to states based both on a states development needs as well as its development performance.
* Need is based on simple index of under development. The indexMulti-Dimensional Index is an average of following ten sub-components: (i) monthly per capita consumption expenditure as measured by the NSSO, (ii) education, (iii) health, (iv) household amenities, (v) poverty rate, (vi) female literacy, and (vii) % of SC ST population, (viii) urbanization rate, (ix) financial inclusion and (x) connectivity.
* It has proposed that 10 States that had score 0.6 and above on the Index may be classified as Least Developed; States that had score below 0.6 and above 0.4 may be classified as Less Developed; and States that had score below 0.4 may be classified as Relatively Developed in the scale of 0 to 1.
* Least developed: Odisha is the least developed state in the country followed by Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
* Less Developed: This list consists of Manipur, West Bengal, Nagaland, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Mizoram, Gujarat, Tripura, Karnataka, Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh. Gujarat is a surprise on this list for most observers as its model of development is much talked about in political and economic circles.
* Relatively Developed: Goa is the most developed state in the country followed by Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand and Haryana.
* The value of underdevelopment index or Multi Development Index (MDI) for a state represents the need of an average individual in a state. To allocate more to underdeveloped states with large areas but small population, the Committee decided to assign 80 % weight to a states share in population and 20% to states share in area. This follows the approach of a number of committees as well as the Finance Commission.
* The report which was proposed a general method for allocating funds from the Centre to the States based on both a States development needs as well as its development performance.
* Committee has mentioned that improvements to the states development index over time (i.e. a fall in underdevelopment) as the measure of performance.
* It hasrecommended that each State may get a fixed basic allocation of 0.3 % of overall funds, to which will be added its share stemming from need and performance to get its overall share.
* In total, 28 states included for construction of index, 8.4% of funds will be allocated as a fixed basic allocation. Of the remaining 91.6%, 3/4ths is allocated based on need and 1/4th based on States improvements on its performance, which will be reviewed after every 5 years.
* It has observed that the demand for funds and special attention of different States will be more than adequately met by the twin recommendations of the basic allocation of 0.3 % of overall funds to each State and the categorisation of States that score 0.6 and above as Least Developed States. According to the Committee, these two recommendations, along with the allocation methodology, effectively subsume what is now Special Category.
* Since States now classified as special category will find their needs met through the new allocations, the term special category will be retired.
Recommendations
* Committee recommends that the framework outlined in this report be used to allocate some of the development funds that are allocated by the Centre to the states.
* It recommends that the proposed MDI be updated on a quinquennial basis and performance be measured relative to the last update.
* It recommends that the index and the allocation formula be re-examined after 10 years and revisions proposed based on experience.
* It recommends that least developed states, as identified by the index, be eligible for other forms of central support that the Central Government may deem necessary to enhance the process of development.
* The approach recommended in this report is not intended to replace all existing methodologies, but should be thought of as one that will channel some fund allocations based on need and performance. Other methodologies may serve different purposes and should be used in parallel to allocate other funds.
Significance of Report prepared by Committee
* Prime Minister has approved the proposal to place the report of the Committee in the public domain.PM has also directed that the recommendations of the Committee may be examined and necessary action in this behalf may be taken.
* Ministry of Finance, Department of Economic Affairs has been asked to examine the report and take necessary action, the Finance Minister added.
Disagreement among the Choice of Indicators
One of the panels five members, Patna-based Shaibal Gupta of the Asian Development Research Institute, has disagreed substantially with the panels choice of indicators, in a long dissent note appended to the report. His most significant disagreement is with the panels decision to use monthly per capital expenditure derived from National Sample Survey Organisation reports as a measure of income, rather than per capita State domestic product, which he said substantially altered State rankings.
In its report, the panel, however, defended its choice of indicator: Since we are interested in measuring the State populations well-being, a majority of the committee agreed that consumption from the household survey seems more appropriate than income from the national accounts. This is a judgment call, and we also present the index calculated using per capita net State domestic product. The correlation between indices is 0.997.
Consequences of Implementing the Report
If the recommendations of this Committee are accepted then
* The transfer of funds from the Centre to the States will have to follow a new pattern. So far, the Central assistance to State plans has been disbursed according to the Gadgil-Mukherjee formula that gives highest weightage to population and poverty ratio. The transfer of taxes from the Central pool is decided every five years by the Finance Commission based on another set of criteria. Then there is the Backward Region Grant Fund under which special assistance is given to backward areas that are in need of funds. Any new method of disbursing funds would be politically fraught because some States might lose while others gain. So implementing the new formula will require a lot of political will.
* Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh will get a larger share of Central funds than their current share of total Central assistance to State plans and Centrally sponsored schemes, while Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra will lose substantially.
By S. Gopal
References
http://www.finmin.nic.in/reports/Report_CompDevState.pdf
http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=99675
http://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/simplified--raghuram-rajan-panel-report-on-state-backwardness-064423690.html
Introduction
Raghuram Rajan Committee was formed to suggest ways to identify indicators of the relative backwardness of the States for equitable allocation of Central funds.It proposes a general method for allocating funds from the Centre to the states based both on a states development needs as well as its development performance. Raghuram Rajan headed panel has been set up by the government to identify criteria to determine a states relative backwardness came out with its report.
Central allocations are governed by the Gadgil-Mukherjee formula that places the greatest weight on the States population, followed by other factors like per capita income and literacy.Rajan Committee has come up with a Multi-Dimensional Index that will help measure backwardness and aid the Centre in allocating funds to states.
Committee Formation
* Committee was formed amid the demands for Special Category status by Bihar, which lags behind the national average on all important indices to fund its development needs. Bihars demand was echoed by other states like Odisha.
* Committee to be constituted, to consider backwardness of the States in terms of measures like distance of the State from the national average under criteria such as per capita income and other human development indicators and for evolving a Composite Development Index of States.
* In his budget speech, Finance Minister had proposed to evolve new criteria and reflect them in future planning and devolution of funds.
Present Condition
* The present criteria for determining backwardness are based on terrain, density of population and length of international borders.
Raghuram Rajan Committee
* Report of the Dr. Raghuram Rajan Committee for Evolving a Composite Development Index of States has been submitted to the Union Finance Minister.
Proposals in the Report
* Any scheme of allocation should take into account both development needs as well as past performance. This committee proposes a general method for allocating funds from Centre to states based both on a states development needs as well as its development performance.
* Need is based on simple index of under development. The indexMulti-Dimensional Index is an average of following ten sub-components: (i) monthly per capita consumption expenditure as measured by the NSSO, (ii) education, (iii) health, (iv) household amenities, (v) poverty rate, (vi) female literacy, and (vii) % of SC ST population, (viii) urbanization rate, (ix) financial inclusion and (x) connectivity.
* It has proposed that 10 States that had score 0.6 and above on the Index may be classified as Least Developed; States that had score below 0.6 and above 0.4 may be classified as Less Developed; and States that had score below 0.4 may be classified as Relatively Developed in the scale of 0 to 1.
* Least developed: Odisha is the least developed state in the country followed by Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
* Less Developed: This list consists of Manipur, West Bengal, Nagaland, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Mizoram, Gujarat, Tripura, Karnataka, Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh. Gujarat is a surprise on this list for most observers as its model of development is much talked about in political and economic circles.
* Relatively Developed: Goa is the most developed state in the country followed by Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand and Haryana.
* The value of underdevelopment index or Multi Development Index (MDI) for a state represents the need of an average individual in a state. To allocate more to underdeveloped states with large areas but small population, the Committee decided to assign 80 % weight to a states share in population and 20% to states share in area. This follows the approach of a number of committees as well as the Finance Commission.
* The report which was proposed a general method for allocating funds from the Centre to the States based on both a States development needs as well as its development performance.
* Committee has mentioned that improvements to the states development index over time (i.e. a fall in underdevelopment) as the measure of performance.
* It hasrecommended that each State may get a fixed basic allocation of 0.3 % of overall funds, to which will be added its share stemming from need and performance to get its overall share.
* In total, 28 states included for construction of index, 8.4% of funds will be allocated as a fixed basic allocation. Of the remaining 91.6%, 3/4ths is allocated based on need and 1/4th based on States improvements on its performance, which will be reviewed after every 5 years.
* It has observed that the demand for funds and special attention of different States will be more than adequately met by the twin recommendations of the basic allocation of 0.3 % of overall funds to each State and the categorisation of States that score 0.6 and above as Least Developed States. According to the Committee, these two recommendations, along with the allocation methodology, effectively subsume what is now Special Category.
* Since States now classified as special category will find their needs met through the new allocations, the term special category will be retired.
Recommendations
* Committee recommends that the framework outlined in this report be used to allocate some of the development funds that are allocated by the Centre to the states.
* It recommends that the proposed MDI be updated on a quinquennial basis and performance be measured relative to the last update.
* It recommends that the index and the allocation formula be re-examined after 10 years and revisions proposed based on experience.
* It recommends that least developed states, as identified by the index, be eligible for other forms of central support that the Central Government may deem necessary to enhance the process of development.
* The approach recommended in this report is not intended to replace all existing methodologies, but should be thought of as one that will channel some fund allocations based on need and performance. Other methodologies may serve different purposes and should be used in parallel to allocate other funds.
Significance of Report prepared by Committee
* Prime Minister has approved the proposal to place the report of the Committee in the public domain.PM has also directed that the recommendations of the Committee may be examined and necessary action in this behalf may be taken.
* Ministry of Finance, Department of Economic Affairs has been asked to examine the report and take necessary action, the Finance Minister added.
Disagreement among the Choice of Indicators
One of the panels five members, Patna-based Shaibal Gupta of the Asian Development Research Institute, has disagreed substantially with the panels choice of indicators, in a long dissent note appended to the report. His most significant disagreement is with the panels decision to use monthly per capital expenditure derived from National Sample Survey Organisation reports as a measure of income, rather than per capita State domestic product, which he said substantially altered State rankings.
In its report, the panel, however, defended its choice of indicator: Since we are interested in measuring the State populations well-being, a majority of the committee agreed that consumption from the household survey seems more appropriate than income from the national accounts. This is a judgment call, and we also present the index calculated using per capita net State domestic product. The correlation between indices is 0.997.
Consequences of Implementing the Report
If the recommendations of this Committee are accepted then
* The transfer of funds from the Centre to the States will have to follow a new pattern. So far, the Central assistance to State plans has been disbursed according to the Gadgil-Mukherjee formula that gives highest weightage to population and poverty ratio. The transfer of taxes from the Central pool is decided every five years by the Finance Commission based on another set of criteria. Then there is the Backward Region Grant Fund under which special assistance is given to backward areas that are in need of funds. Any new method of disbursing funds would be politically fraught because some States might lose while others gain. So implementing the new formula will require a lot of political will.
* Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh will get a larger share of Central funds than their current share of total Central assistance to State plans and Centrally sponsored schemes, while Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra will lose substantially.
By S. Gopal
References
http://www.finmin.nic.in/reports/Report_CompDevState.pdf
http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=99675
http://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/simplified--raghuram-rajan-panel-report-on-state-backwardness-064423690.html
Distribution of non-metallic minerals and energy resources
Distribution of non-metallic minerals and energy resources
Prologue:
Last article is about metallic resources only as time was less for whole topic. Sources dont allow me to gather much information on non-metallic distribution, please update whenever you find relevant information.
Non-Metallic resources minerals
* Mica
Features:
* mainly used in electric industry
* great insulating property
* can withstand high voltage
* low power loss factor
* can be split into very thin sheets which are tough and flexible
Formation/occurence:
* obtained from muscovite, biotic and phlogopite ores.
* occurs inigneous,metamorphicandsedimentaryregimes
* typically mined fromgraniticpegmatites.
Distribution:
CountriesLocation
ChinaLiaoning
RussiaSakha, Buryatia, Petrozavodsk
FinlandNorthern Karelia
UsNew Hamsphire, Connecticut, Maine
CanadaOntario
Other countries : Spain, France, South Korea.
* Limestone:
Features:
* Aggregate of calcium carbonate, carbonate of calcium and magnesium of a mixture of two.
* contain small quantity of silica, alumina, iron-oxides, phosphorus and sulphur.
* used in cement, iron-steel, chemical industries and as building material
* limestone with high silicon content preferred in cement industry
Occurence/Formation:
* Limestone deposits are of sedimentary origin
* exists almost in all geological formation from Pre-Cambrian to recent except Gondwana
* Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such ascoral.
CountryLocation
China In all states except Sanghai
USAIndiana: major source of limestone
FinlandKainuu, Southern Ostrobothnia, Central Finland, Tavastia proper, Kymen Laakso, South Savonia, Northern Karelia
Other countries : Sweden, Ireland, Mexico.
* Diamond:
Features:
* known for its brilliance, luster, transparency and hardness.
* highest hardness and thermal conductivity; have high optical dispersion; chemically stable;
* used as cutting and polishing tools; precious stone, used in jewelry
CountryLocations
South AfricaBaken mines (along Orange river), Cullinan mines (gauteng), Finsch mines (Northern Cape), Koffiefontein mines (Free State), Venetia mines (Largest - in Limpopo)
RussiaMir mines (in Eastern Siberia), Udachny mines, Jubilee mines, Aikhal mines, Komsomolskaya mines, Zarnitsa mines ( all in sakha)
AustraliaArgyle mines (East Kimberley), Merlin mines (Northern Territory), Ellendale mines (Western Australia)
CanadaNorthern Territory : Daivik mines, Ekati mines, Jericho mines, Sanp Lake mines, Gahcho Kue minesOntario: Victor mines
BotswanaJwaneng mines (Kweneng), Damtshaa mines, Latehakane mines , Orapa mines, Karowe mines (all in Central Botswan)
AngolaCatoca mines (Lunda Sul), Facuma mines (Lunda Norte), Luarica mines (Luanda)
BrazilAmazons, Mato Groso, Para, Roraima, Maranhao, Bahia, Mina Gerais, Parana
NambiaNamdeb, Afri-Can Marine-along coastline of Atlantic Ocean
GhanaWestern Ghana, Central Ghana, Eastern Ghana , Greater Accra
Distribution of Energy Resources
Conventional Energy Resources:
* Coal
Types :
1. Peat :
* contains highest percentage of moisture
* give more smoke
* has less tahn 40% of carbon
* inferior quality
* represents first stage of coal formation
2. Lignite (brown coal):
* superior to peat coal
* under increasing pressure and heat : Peat -> Lignite
* contains 40-60% of carbon
3. Bituminous (black-coal):
* When coal is buried very deep, moisture gets expelled. Increased temperature = Bituminous coal.
* Dense, compact and black in color
* Traces of original vegetation (from which it has been formed) found in it
* 60-80% of carbon
* most popular in commercial use
* used in making coking coal (mainly used in iron and steel industry), gas coal, steam coal
4. Anthracite (Hard coal) :
* highest quality of coal
* 80-90% carbon
* very little volatile matter and insignificant proportion of moisture
* short blue color
* more expensive
Features:
* Used in generation of thermal energy and smelting of iron ore
* used as raw material in chemical and fertilizer industries
* used as fuel
CountryLocation
South AfricaLimpopo - Northern Transvaal; Mpumalanga- Waterberg coalfield, Highveld coalfield, Witbank coalfield, Ermelo coalfield; Kwazula Natal - Ultrecht coalfield, Klip River coalfield
ChinaHeilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Shanxi, Shandong, Henan, Hebei, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi
USPennsyluania, West Virginia, Kentucky, Colorado, Wyoming, Raton Basin, Harrisburg coal field, Southern Illinocs coal field, Appalachian Mountain, Montana
GermanyBergwerk Ibbenburen, in Ibbenburen; Zeche Auguste Viktoria, in Marl; Bergwerk Prosper-Haniel, Bottrop: Bergwerk West , Kamp Lintfort; Bergwerk Saar, Saarlouis
AustraliaBowen Basin in Queensland , Hunter region in New South Wales, Latrobe valley in Victoria
RussiaFar eastern - Chukotka, Magadan, Sakha, Amur; Siberian - Zakaykalsky Krai, Tuva, Altai, Kemerovo; Northwestern - Nenetsia; Central - Tver, Kostroma
CanadaBritish Columbia, Aberta, Saskatchewan, New Brunswick, Prince Edward, Nova Scotia
Other countries : Venezuela, Brazil, Mongolia, UK, France, Zimbawe
* Petroleum:
Features:
* Fuel resource; provide lubricants and raw material for chemical industries
* Its products: kerosene, diesel, petrol, aviation fuel, synthetic rubber, synthetic fiber, thermoplastic resins, benzene-methansol, polystertene, acrylates, detergents, aromatics, gasoline, carbon black, dyes, colors, food-colors, pigments, explosives, printing ink, film photography, greases, cosmetics, paints, lubricant oils, parafiin and wax.
Occurence/Formation:
* consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states
* mainly obtained from sedimentary rocks of marine origin
* Living organisms and vegetal matter got buried under sediments of mud, silt and sand, etc -- due to pressure and heat - undergoes chemical changes -- form crude oil and natural gas.
CountryLocation
Saudi ArabiaNorthern Borders, Eastern province, Persian Gulf
IraqDahuk, As Sulaymaniyah, Al Bas Rah
IranAzarba Yjan-E Khavari, Kermanshah, Llam, Khuzestan, Bushehr
RussiaNorthwestern, Urals, Southern
NorwayNorweigien Sea, North Sea
CanadaAlberta, Saskatchewan, offshore areas of Newfoundland
VenezuelaFalcon, Zulia, Sucre, Gaurico, Trujillo, Barinas, Anzoategui
Other countries : UAE, US, Russia, Algeria, Libya, China, Mexico, Kuwait
* Natural Gas:
Features:
* used for heating ,cooking, energy generation
* used as fuel for vehicles
* also used as chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals.
Foramtion/Occurence:
* naturally occurringhydrocarbongasmixture
* consisting primarily ofmethane, but commonly includes varying amounts of other higheralkanesand even a lesser percentage ofcarbon dioxide,nitrogen, andhydrogen sulfide.
* found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs incoal bedsand asmethane clathrates
CountryLocation
IranKermanshah, Lorestan, Golestan, Razavi Khorasan, Bashehr, Hormozgan, Fars, Esfahan
RussiaSouthern, Northwestern, Urals
Saudi ArabiaNorthern Borders, Eastern province, Persian Gulf
QatarJamayliyah
NorwayNorweigien Sea, North Sea
IndonesiaAceh, Riau, Kalimantan Barat
Other countries : Algeria, Canada, US, Venezuela, China, Mexico, Colombia, Nigeria, Australia, Libya
* Hydro-Electricity:
-generated from water: production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water
Generating methods :
1. Conventional (dams):
-Most hydroelectric power comes from thepotential energyofdammedwater driving awater turbineandgenerator.
-The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow.
-This height difference is called thehead.
-The amount ofpotential energyin water is proportional to the head.
2. Pumped-storage:
-produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water betweenreservoirsat different elevations. At times of low electrical demand ->excess generation capacityis used to pump water into the higher reservoir.
- When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.
3. Run-of-the-river
4. Tide
5. Underground
-Anunderground power stationmakes use of a large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake.
-An underground tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in an underground cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway.
List of some dams (list is not exhausted):
CountriesNameRiver
ChinaThree Gorges Dam Longtan DamLaxiwa DamXiaowan DamErtan DamPubugou DamGoupitan DamGezhouba DamJinanqiao DamLiyuan DamGuandi DamLijiaxia DamYangtzeHongshuiYellowMekongYalongDaduWuYangtzeJinshaJinshaYalongYellow
CanadaRobert-BourassaChurchill FallsW. A. C. Bennett DamLa Grande-4Manic-5 and Manic-5-PARevelstoke DamLa Grande-3La Grande-2-ALa GrandeChurchillPeace RiverLa GrandeManicouaganColumbiaLa GrandeLa Grande
BrazilItaipu DamTucuruIlha Solteira DamXing DamPaulo Afonso IVItumbiaraParanaTocantinsParanaSao FranciscoSao FranciscoParanaba
USAGrand CouleeChief Joseph DamNiagara Falls (US)John Day DamHoover DamColumbiaColumbiaNiagaraColumbiaN. Platte
RussiaSayanoShushenskayaKrasnoyarskBratsaUst IlimskayaVolzhskaya (Volgogradskaya)Zhiguliovskaya (Samarskaya)Bureya DamYeniseiYeniseiAngaraAngaraVolgaVolgaBureya
* Nuclear Energy:
-important minerals used are : Uranium and Thorium
-exothermic nuclear processes
Some nuclear energy plants in world : (only main producers)
CountryName (not exhausted)
France
* Belleville Nuclear Power Plant -
* Blayais Nuclear Power Plant
* Bugey Nuclear Power Plant
* Cattenom Nuclear Power Plant
* Chinon Nuclear Power Plant
* Chooz Nuclear Power Plant
* Civaux Nuclear Power Plant
* Cruas Nuclear Power Plant
* Dampierre Nuclear Power Plant
* Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant
* Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant
* Golfech Nuclear Power Plant
* Gravelines Nuclear Power Plant
* Nogent Nuclear Power Plant
* Paluel Nuclear Power Plant
* Penly Nuclear Power Plant
* Phnix Nuclear Power Plant
* Saint-Alban Nuclear Power Plant
* Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant
* Tricastin Nuclear Power Center
Japan
* Fukushima I
* Fukushima II
* Genkai
* Hamaoka
* Higashidori
* Ikata
* Kashiwazaki-Kariwa
* Mihama
* Monju
* Oi
* Onagawa
* Sendai
* Shika
* Shimane
* Takahama
* Tokai
* Tomari
* Tsuruga
Germany
* Biblis Nuclear Power Plant
* Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant
* Brunsbttel Nuclear Power Plant
* Emsland Nuclear Power Plant
* Grafenrheinfeld Nuclear Power Plant
* Gundremmingen Nuclear Power Plant
* Nuclear Power Plant Landshut Isar I + Isar II;
* Krmmel Nuclear Power Plant
* Neckarwestheim Nuclear Power Plant
* Philippsburg Nuclear Power Plant
* Unterweser Nuclear Power Plant
USA
* Beaver Valley Nuclear Generating Station
* Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Generating Station
* Connecticut Yankee Nuclear Power Plant
* Ginna Nuclear Generating Station
* Indian Point Energy Center
* Hope Creek Nuclear Generating Station
* James A. FitzPatrick Nuclear Power Plant
* Millstone Nuclear Power Plant
* Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station
* Shippingport Atomic Power Station
* Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating
* Catawba Nuclear Station
* H. B. Robinson Nuclear Generating Station
* North Anna Nuclear Generating Station
* Surry Nuclear Power Plant
* Byron Nuclear Generating Station
* Point Beach Nuclear Plant
Russia
* Balakovo
* Beloyarsk (BN-600)
* Bilibino
* Kalinin
* Kola
* Kursk
* Novovoronezh
* Smolensk
* Leningrad (Sosnovy Bor)
* Volgodonsk (Rostov)
Canada
* Pickering- A,B
* Darlington
* Bruce -A,B
* Nuclear Power Demonstration
* Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station
* Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station
* Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station
China
* Daya Bay (Guangdong )
* Hongyanhe
* Ling'ao (Lingao)
* Ningde
* Qinshan (formerly Qinshan)
* Tianwan (Lianyungang)
Distribution in India
Non-metals :
Name ofNon-metalStateLocation
MicaAndhra Pradesh -Nellore mica belt, Dudur, Khamma, Krishna, West Godavari, Vishakhapatnam
Rajasthan-Jaipur, Udaipur, Ajmer, Bhilwara, Dungarpur, Sikar and Tonk
Jharkhand-Hazaribagh plateau , Dhanbad, Palamau, Ranchi
Tamil Nadu-Coimbatore, Triuchirapalli, Madurai, Kanyakumari
West Bengal- Purulia, Bankura
LimestoneMadhya Pradesh- Balaghat and Chhindwara
Meghalaya-Khasi and Jainti hills
Karnataka-Bijapur, Belgaum, Shimoga
Andhra Pradesh-Vishakhapattnam, Guntur, Krishna, Karimnagar, Adilabad
Orissa-Sundargarh
Bihar-Shahabad
DiamondMadhya Pradesh-Panna, Bundekhand
Andhra Pradesh -Kurnool, Anantapur
Karnataka-Raichur
Cutting and polishing -in Surat, Ahmedabad, Navasari, Palanpur, Bhavnagar, Mumbia, Khambat, Jaipur, Trichur, Goa
Distribution of Energy resources :
Conventional resources:
StateLocation
Jharkhand-Dhanbad, Dumka, Hazaribagh, Palamu, Auranga, Bokaro, Daltenganj, Giridih, Hutar, Jharia, Karanpur and Ramgarh
Odisha-Dhenkanal, Sambalpur, Sundargarh
Chhattisgarh-Bilaspur, Raigarh, Surguja
West Bengal-Raniganj, Bankura, Bardhman, Birbhum, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Puruliya
Madhya Pradesh-Rewa, Betul, Chhindwara, Narsinghpur, Sidhi, Shahdol, Singrauli, Muhpani, Satpura, Sohagpur, Pench-Kanhan
Andhra Pradesh-Godavari valley, Adilabad, Khammam, Nellore, Warangal, Singareni, Kottagudam
Other states -Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland
* Petroleum and Natural Gas :
Basins form where petroleum and natural gas recovered:
1. The Upper Assam Basin
2. The Western Bengal Basin
3. The Western Himalayan Basin
4. The Rajasthan Saurastra-Kachchh Basin
5. The Northern Gujarat Basin
6. The Coastal Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala Basin
7. The Ganga Valley Basin
8. The Andaman and Nicobar Coastal Basin
9. Offshore of Khambat, Bombay High and Bassein
Crude oil producing regions :
RegionsOilfields
Western Coast Offshore Oilfields- Bombay High Oilfields-Bassein Oilfields-Aliabet Oilfields
The Gujarat Coast-Ankheshwar-Cambay-Luni-The Ahmadabad-Kalol
The Brahmaputra Valley-Digboi Oilfield-The Naharkatiya oilfield
The Eastern Coast oilfields-marine delta regions in Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri rivers
Other regions- Uttar Pradesh: Bilaspur in Rampur-Punjab : Jawalamukhi -Rajasthan : Barmer
Distribution of natural gas:
* Bombay High
* Bassein oilfields
* Gujarat : Ankleshwar and Gulf of Khambat
* Andhra Pradesh
* Assam
* Tamil Nadu: Thanjavur and Shingleput
* Godawari and Krishna Basin
* Rajasthan: Barmer
* Himachal Pradesh: Kangra
* Punjab : Firozpur
* Hydro-Electricity :
StateHydro-Electricity Power plants
Andhra Pradesh-Machkund, Nagarjun-Sagar, Nizam-Sagar, Sileru, Srisalem
Bihar- Kosi
Gujarat-Akrimota, Sardar-Sarovar, Ukai (tapi), Hathmati (sabarmati), Bhadra (Kathiawad)
Jammu & KashmirDool-hasti, Lower Jhelum, Salal, Baghliar
Jharkhand-Maithon, Panchet, Tilaiya, Mayurakshi
Karnataka-Mahatma-Gandhi (Jog falls), Sivasamudram (Kaveri), Bhadra, Munirabad, Saravati, Tungbhadra, Krishnaraja-Sagar
Kerala-Idikki , Kallada, Kuttiaddy, Pallivasal, Parambikulam, Poringal, Panniar, Sabarigiri, Periyar
Madhya Pradesh-Jawaharsagar and Pratap-Sagar on Chambal, Twa
Maharashtra-Bhola, Bhatnagar-Beed, Girna, Khopali, Koyna, Purna, Paithon, Vaiterna
North-Eastern States-Dikhu, Doyan (both in Nagaland); Gomuti (Tripura); Loktak (Manipur); Kopali (Assam); Khandong and Kyrdemkulai ( Meghalaya); Sirlui and Barabi (Mizoram); Ranganadi (Arunachal Pradesh)
Odisha-Hiradud(Mahanadi), Balimela, Rengali (Brahmani), Indiravati
Punjab and Himachal Pradesh-Bhakra-Nangal on Satluj, Dehar on Beas, Giri-Bata, Harike Binwa, Andhra, Chamera, Pong, Siul, Bassi
Rajasthan-Ranapratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar on Chambal River
Tamil Nadu-Bhavanisagar, Mettur, Periyar, Aliayar, Kodayar, Moyar, Suruliyar, Papnasam
Uttarakhand-Tehri-dam and Koteshwar-dam on Bhagirathi
Uttar Pradesh-Rihand, Ramganga , Chibro on tons
West Bengal -Panchet
* Nuclear Energy :
StatePower station
Maharashtra-Tarapur, Jaitapur
Rajasthan-Rawatbhata
Tamil Nadu-Kundakulam, Kalpakkam
Uttar Pradesh-Narora
Gujarat-Kakrapara, Maithi-Verdi
Karnataka-Kaiga
West Bengal-Haripur
Madhya Pradesh-Bargi-Chutka
Haryana-Kumharia
Non-Conventional Energy Resources: (in next article)
* Solar Energy:
* Wind Energy:
* Ocean energy:
* Geothermal Energy:
* Bio-Energy:
Nisha Vats
Prologue:
Last article is about metallic resources only as time was less for whole topic. Sources dont allow me to gather much information on non-metallic distribution, please update whenever you find relevant information.
Non-Metallic resources minerals
* Mica
Features:
* mainly used in electric industry
* great insulating property
* can withstand high voltage
* low power loss factor
* can be split into very thin sheets which are tough and flexible
Formation/occurence:
* obtained from muscovite, biotic and phlogopite ores.
* occurs inigneous,metamorphicandsedimentaryregimes
* typically mined fromgraniticpegmatites.
Distribution:
CountriesLocation
ChinaLiaoning
RussiaSakha, Buryatia, Petrozavodsk
FinlandNorthern Karelia
UsNew Hamsphire, Connecticut, Maine
CanadaOntario
Other countries : Spain, France, South Korea.
* Limestone:
Features:
* Aggregate of calcium carbonate, carbonate of calcium and magnesium of a mixture of two.
* contain small quantity of silica, alumina, iron-oxides, phosphorus and sulphur.
* used in cement, iron-steel, chemical industries and as building material
* limestone with high silicon content preferred in cement industry
Occurence/Formation:
* Limestone deposits are of sedimentary origin
* exists almost in all geological formation from Pre-Cambrian to recent except Gondwana
* Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such ascoral.
CountryLocation
China In all states except Sanghai
USAIndiana: major source of limestone
FinlandKainuu, Southern Ostrobothnia, Central Finland, Tavastia proper, Kymen Laakso, South Savonia, Northern Karelia
Other countries : Sweden, Ireland, Mexico.
* Diamond:
Features:
* known for its brilliance, luster, transparency and hardness.
* highest hardness and thermal conductivity; have high optical dispersion; chemically stable;
* used as cutting and polishing tools; precious stone, used in jewelry
CountryLocations
South AfricaBaken mines (along Orange river), Cullinan mines (gauteng), Finsch mines (Northern Cape), Koffiefontein mines (Free State), Venetia mines (Largest - in Limpopo)
RussiaMir mines (in Eastern Siberia), Udachny mines, Jubilee mines, Aikhal mines, Komsomolskaya mines, Zarnitsa mines ( all in sakha)
AustraliaArgyle mines (East Kimberley), Merlin mines (Northern Territory), Ellendale mines (Western Australia)
CanadaNorthern Territory : Daivik mines, Ekati mines, Jericho mines, Sanp Lake mines, Gahcho Kue minesOntario: Victor mines
BotswanaJwaneng mines (Kweneng), Damtshaa mines, Latehakane mines , Orapa mines, Karowe mines (all in Central Botswan)
AngolaCatoca mines (Lunda Sul), Facuma mines (Lunda Norte), Luarica mines (Luanda)
BrazilAmazons, Mato Groso, Para, Roraima, Maranhao, Bahia, Mina Gerais, Parana
NambiaNamdeb, Afri-Can Marine-along coastline of Atlantic Ocean
GhanaWestern Ghana, Central Ghana, Eastern Ghana , Greater Accra
Distribution of Energy Resources
Conventional Energy Resources:
* Coal
Types :
1. Peat :
* contains highest percentage of moisture
* give more smoke
* has less tahn 40% of carbon
* inferior quality
* represents first stage of coal formation
2. Lignite (brown coal):
* superior to peat coal
* under increasing pressure and heat : Peat -> Lignite
* contains 40-60% of carbon
3. Bituminous (black-coal):
* When coal is buried very deep, moisture gets expelled. Increased temperature = Bituminous coal.
* Dense, compact and black in color
* Traces of original vegetation (from which it has been formed) found in it
* 60-80% of carbon
* most popular in commercial use
* used in making coking coal (mainly used in iron and steel industry), gas coal, steam coal
4. Anthracite (Hard coal) :
* highest quality of coal
* 80-90% carbon
* very little volatile matter and insignificant proportion of moisture
* short blue color
* more expensive
Features:
* Used in generation of thermal energy and smelting of iron ore
* used as raw material in chemical and fertilizer industries
* used as fuel
CountryLocation
South AfricaLimpopo - Northern Transvaal; Mpumalanga- Waterberg coalfield, Highveld coalfield, Witbank coalfield, Ermelo coalfield; Kwazula Natal - Ultrecht coalfield, Klip River coalfield
ChinaHeilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Shanxi, Shandong, Henan, Hebei, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi
USPennsyluania, West Virginia, Kentucky, Colorado, Wyoming, Raton Basin, Harrisburg coal field, Southern Illinocs coal field, Appalachian Mountain, Montana
GermanyBergwerk Ibbenburen, in Ibbenburen; Zeche Auguste Viktoria, in Marl; Bergwerk Prosper-Haniel, Bottrop: Bergwerk West , Kamp Lintfort; Bergwerk Saar, Saarlouis
AustraliaBowen Basin in Queensland , Hunter region in New South Wales, Latrobe valley in Victoria
RussiaFar eastern - Chukotka, Magadan, Sakha, Amur; Siberian - Zakaykalsky Krai, Tuva, Altai, Kemerovo; Northwestern - Nenetsia; Central - Tver, Kostroma
CanadaBritish Columbia, Aberta, Saskatchewan, New Brunswick, Prince Edward, Nova Scotia
Other countries : Venezuela, Brazil, Mongolia, UK, France, Zimbawe
* Petroleum:
Features:
* Fuel resource; provide lubricants and raw material for chemical industries
* Its products: kerosene, diesel, petrol, aviation fuel, synthetic rubber, synthetic fiber, thermoplastic resins, benzene-methansol, polystertene, acrylates, detergents, aromatics, gasoline, carbon black, dyes, colors, food-colors, pigments, explosives, printing ink, film photography, greases, cosmetics, paints, lubricant oils, parafiin and wax.
Occurence/Formation:
* consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states
* mainly obtained from sedimentary rocks of marine origin
* Living organisms and vegetal matter got buried under sediments of mud, silt and sand, etc -- due to pressure and heat - undergoes chemical changes -- form crude oil and natural gas.
CountryLocation
Saudi ArabiaNorthern Borders, Eastern province, Persian Gulf
IraqDahuk, As Sulaymaniyah, Al Bas Rah
IranAzarba Yjan-E Khavari, Kermanshah, Llam, Khuzestan, Bushehr
RussiaNorthwestern, Urals, Southern
NorwayNorweigien Sea, North Sea
CanadaAlberta, Saskatchewan, offshore areas of Newfoundland
VenezuelaFalcon, Zulia, Sucre, Gaurico, Trujillo, Barinas, Anzoategui
Other countries : UAE, US, Russia, Algeria, Libya, China, Mexico, Kuwait
* Natural Gas:
Features:
* used for heating ,cooking, energy generation
* used as fuel for vehicles
* also used as chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals.
Foramtion/Occurence:
* naturally occurringhydrocarbongasmixture
* consisting primarily ofmethane, but commonly includes varying amounts of other higheralkanesand even a lesser percentage ofcarbon dioxide,nitrogen, andhydrogen sulfide.
* found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs incoal bedsand asmethane clathrates
CountryLocation
IranKermanshah, Lorestan, Golestan, Razavi Khorasan, Bashehr, Hormozgan, Fars, Esfahan
RussiaSouthern, Northwestern, Urals
Saudi ArabiaNorthern Borders, Eastern province, Persian Gulf
QatarJamayliyah
NorwayNorweigien Sea, North Sea
IndonesiaAceh, Riau, Kalimantan Barat
Other countries : Algeria, Canada, US, Venezuela, China, Mexico, Colombia, Nigeria, Australia, Libya
* Hydro-Electricity:
-generated from water: production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water
Generating methods :
1. Conventional (dams):
-Most hydroelectric power comes from thepotential energyofdammedwater driving awater turbineandgenerator.
-The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow.
-This height difference is called thehead.
-The amount ofpotential energyin water is proportional to the head.
2. Pumped-storage:
-produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water betweenreservoirsat different elevations. At times of low electrical demand ->excess generation capacityis used to pump water into the higher reservoir.
- When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine.
3. Run-of-the-river
4. Tide
5. Underground
-Anunderground power stationmakes use of a large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake.
-An underground tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in an underground cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway.
List of some dams (list is not exhausted):
CountriesNameRiver
ChinaThree Gorges Dam Longtan DamLaxiwa DamXiaowan DamErtan DamPubugou DamGoupitan DamGezhouba DamJinanqiao DamLiyuan DamGuandi DamLijiaxia DamYangtzeHongshuiYellowMekongYalongDaduWuYangtzeJinshaJinshaYalongYellow
CanadaRobert-BourassaChurchill FallsW. A. C. Bennett DamLa Grande-4Manic-5 and Manic-5-PARevelstoke DamLa Grande-3La Grande-2-ALa GrandeChurchillPeace RiverLa GrandeManicouaganColumbiaLa GrandeLa Grande
BrazilItaipu DamTucuruIlha Solteira DamXing DamPaulo Afonso IVItumbiaraParanaTocantinsParanaSao FranciscoSao FranciscoParanaba
USAGrand CouleeChief Joseph DamNiagara Falls (US)John Day DamHoover DamColumbiaColumbiaNiagaraColumbiaN. Platte
RussiaSayanoShushenskayaKrasnoyarskBratsaUst IlimskayaVolzhskaya (Volgogradskaya)Zhiguliovskaya (Samarskaya)Bureya DamYeniseiYeniseiAngaraAngaraVolgaVolgaBureya
* Nuclear Energy:
-important minerals used are : Uranium and Thorium
-exothermic nuclear processes
Some nuclear energy plants in world : (only main producers)
CountryName (not exhausted)
France
* Belleville Nuclear Power Plant -
* Blayais Nuclear Power Plant
* Bugey Nuclear Power Plant
* Cattenom Nuclear Power Plant
* Chinon Nuclear Power Plant
* Chooz Nuclear Power Plant
* Civaux Nuclear Power Plant
* Cruas Nuclear Power Plant
* Dampierre Nuclear Power Plant
* Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant
* Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant
* Golfech Nuclear Power Plant
* Gravelines Nuclear Power Plant
* Nogent Nuclear Power Plant
* Paluel Nuclear Power Plant
* Penly Nuclear Power Plant
* Phnix Nuclear Power Plant
* Saint-Alban Nuclear Power Plant
* Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant
* Tricastin Nuclear Power Center
Japan
* Fukushima I
* Fukushima II
* Genkai
* Hamaoka
* Higashidori
* Ikata
* Kashiwazaki-Kariwa
* Mihama
* Monju
* Oi
* Onagawa
* Sendai
* Shika
* Shimane
* Takahama
* Tokai
* Tomari
* Tsuruga
Germany
* Biblis Nuclear Power Plant
* Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant
* Brunsbttel Nuclear Power Plant
* Emsland Nuclear Power Plant
* Grafenrheinfeld Nuclear Power Plant
* Gundremmingen Nuclear Power Plant
* Nuclear Power Plant Landshut Isar I + Isar II;
* Krmmel Nuclear Power Plant
* Neckarwestheim Nuclear Power Plant
* Philippsburg Nuclear Power Plant
* Unterweser Nuclear Power Plant
USA
* Beaver Valley Nuclear Generating Station
* Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Generating Station
* Connecticut Yankee Nuclear Power Plant
* Ginna Nuclear Generating Station
* Indian Point Energy Center
* Hope Creek Nuclear Generating Station
* James A. FitzPatrick Nuclear Power Plant
* Millstone Nuclear Power Plant
* Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station
* Shippingport Atomic Power Station
* Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating
* Catawba Nuclear Station
* H. B. Robinson Nuclear Generating Station
* North Anna Nuclear Generating Station
* Surry Nuclear Power Plant
* Byron Nuclear Generating Station
* Point Beach Nuclear Plant
Russia
* Balakovo
* Beloyarsk (BN-600)
* Bilibino
* Kalinin
* Kola
* Kursk
* Novovoronezh
* Smolensk
* Leningrad (Sosnovy Bor)
* Volgodonsk (Rostov)
Canada
* Pickering- A,B
* Darlington
* Bruce -A,B
* Nuclear Power Demonstration
* Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station
* Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station
* Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station
China
* Daya Bay (Guangdong )
* Hongyanhe
* Ling'ao (Lingao)
* Ningde
* Qinshan (formerly Qinshan)
* Tianwan (Lianyungang)
Distribution in India
Non-metals :
Name ofNon-metalStateLocation
MicaAndhra Pradesh -Nellore mica belt, Dudur, Khamma, Krishna, West Godavari, Vishakhapatnam
Rajasthan-Jaipur, Udaipur, Ajmer, Bhilwara, Dungarpur, Sikar and Tonk
Jharkhand-Hazaribagh plateau , Dhanbad, Palamau, Ranchi
Tamil Nadu-Coimbatore, Triuchirapalli, Madurai, Kanyakumari
West Bengal- Purulia, Bankura
LimestoneMadhya Pradesh- Balaghat and Chhindwara
Meghalaya-Khasi and Jainti hills
Karnataka-Bijapur, Belgaum, Shimoga
Andhra Pradesh-Vishakhapattnam, Guntur, Krishna, Karimnagar, Adilabad
Orissa-Sundargarh
Bihar-Shahabad
DiamondMadhya Pradesh-Panna, Bundekhand
Andhra Pradesh -Kurnool, Anantapur
Karnataka-Raichur
Cutting and polishing -in Surat, Ahmedabad, Navasari, Palanpur, Bhavnagar, Mumbia, Khambat, Jaipur, Trichur, Goa
Distribution of Energy resources :
Conventional resources:
StateLocation
Jharkhand-Dhanbad, Dumka, Hazaribagh, Palamu, Auranga, Bokaro, Daltenganj, Giridih, Hutar, Jharia, Karanpur and Ramgarh
Odisha-Dhenkanal, Sambalpur, Sundargarh
Chhattisgarh-Bilaspur, Raigarh, Surguja
West Bengal-Raniganj, Bankura, Bardhman, Birbhum, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Puruliya
Madhya Pradesh-Rewa, Betul, Chhindwara, Narsinghpur, Sidhi, Shahdol, Singrauli, Muhpani, Satpura, Sohagpur, Pench-Kanhan
Andhra Pradesh-Godavari valley, Adilabad, Khammam, Nellore, Warangal, Singareni, Kottagudam
Other states -Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland
* Petroleum and Natural Gas :
Basins form where petroleum and natural gas recovered:
1. The Upper Assam Basin
2. The Western Bengal Basin
3. The Western Himalayan Basin
4. The Rajasthan Saurastra-Kachchh Basin
5. The Northern Gujarat Basin
6. The Coastal Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala Basin
7. The Ganga Valley Basin
8. The Andaman and Nicobar Coastal Basin
9. Offshore of Khambat, Bombay High and Bassein
Crude oil producing regions :
RegionsOilfields
Western Coast Offshore Oilfields- Bombay High Oilfields-Bassein Oilfields-Aliabet Oilfields
The Gujarat Coast-Ankheshwar-Cambay-Luni-The Ahmadabad-Kalol
The Brahmaputra Valley-Digboi Oilfield-The Naharkatiya oilfield
The Eastern Coast oilfields-marine delta regions in Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri rivers
Other regions- Uttar Pradesh: Bilaspur in Rampur-Punjab : Jawalamukhi -Rajasthan : Barmer
Distribution of natural gas:
* Bombay High
* Bassein oilfields
* Gujarat : Ankleshwar and Gulf of Khambat
* Andhra Pradesh
* Assam
* Tamil Nadu: Thanjavur and Shingleput
* Godawari and Krishna Basin
* Rajasthan: Barmer
* Himachal Pradesh: Kangra
* Punjab : Firozpur
* Hydro-Electricity :
StateHydro-Electricity Power plants
Andhra Pradesh-Machkund, Nagarjun-Sagar, Nizam-Sagar, Sileru, Srisalem
Bihar- Kosi
Gujarat-Akrimota, Sardar-Sarovar, Ukai (tapi), Hathmati (sabarmati), Bhadra (Kathiawad)
Jammu & KashmirDool-hasti, Lower Jhelum, Salal, Baghliar
Jharkhand-Maithon, Panchet, Tilaiya, Mayurakshi
Karnataka-Mahatma-Gandhi (Jog falls), Sivasamudram (Kaveri), Bhadra, Munirabad, Saravati, Tungbhadra, Krishnaraja-Sagar
Kerala-Idikki , Kallada, Kuttiaddy, Pallivasal, Parambikulam, Poringal, Panniar, Sabarigiri, Periyar
Madhya Pradesh-Jawaharsagar and Pratap-Sagar on Chambal, Twa
Maharashtra-Bhola, Bhatnagar-Beed, Girna, Khopali, Koyna, Purna, Paithon, Vaiterna
North-Eastern States-Dikhu, Doyan (both in Nagaland); Gomuti (Tripura); Loktak (Manipur); Kopali (Assam); Khandong and Kyrdemkulai ( Meghalaya); Sirlui and Barabi (Mizoram); Ranganadi (Arunachal Pradesh)
Odisha-Hiradud(Mahanadi), Balimela, Rengali (Brahmani), Indiravati
Punjab and Himachal Pradesh-Bhakra-Nangal on Satluj, Dehar on Beas, Giri-Bata, Harike Binwa, Andhra, Chamera, Pong, Siul, Bassi
Rajasthan-Ranapratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar on Chambal River
Tamil Nadu-Bhavanisagar, Mettur, Periyar, Aliayar, Kodayar, Moyar, Suruliyar, Papnasam
Uttarakhand-Tehri-dam and Koteshwar-dam on Bhagirathi
Uttar Pradesh-Rihand, Ramganga , Chibro on tons
West Bengal -Panchet
* Nuclear Energy :
StatePower station
Maharashtra-Tarapur, Jaitapur
Rajasthan-Rawatbhata
Tamil Nadu-Kundakulam, Kalpakkam
Uttar Pradesh-Narora
Gujarat-Kakrapara, Maithi-Verdi
Karnataka-Kaiga
West Bengal-Haripur
Madhya Pradesh-Bargi-Chutka
Haryana-Kumharia
Non-Conventional Energy Resources: (in next article)
* Solar Energy:
* Wind Energy:
* Ocean energy:
* Geothermal Energy:
* Bio-Energy:
Nisha Vats
Important Dynasties of Ancient India
KASI Dynasty:
* One Of its ruler ASHRASENA was the father of 23rd Jain Thirthangara PARASAVANATH who lived 250 years before Mahavira
* Annexed by Kosala
HARYANKA Dynasty:
BIMBISARA:
* His Foreign Policy is Matrimonial Alliance
* He married Koshala Devi, Sister of Kosala Ruler PARSENAJIT and got Kasi as dowry
AJATASHATRU:
* Father: Bimbisara
* Mother: Chellana, Lichchhavi Princes
* First Buddhist Council @ Rajgir (483 BC-Prez: Makasappa)
* Conquered Vajjis Confederation after a prolonged struggle
UDAYIN:
* Found a city called PATALIPUTRA and made it as capital
* Killed by his minister SHISUNAGA
SHISUNAGA Dynasty:
SHISUNAGA: Annexed Avanthi
KALASOKA:
* Second Buddhist Council @ Vaishali (383 BC-Prez: Sabhagami)
* Killed by his minister MAHAPADMANANDA
NANDHA Dynasty:
MAHAPADMANANDA:
* Famously called Ugrasena (Terrible Army)
* Annexed Kalinga before Asoka (source: Hathigumba Inscription, Hathigumba, Orissa during period of Kalingan King KARAVELA)
DHANANANDHA:
* Last Ruler
* Alexanders Invasion (326BC) during his period, but he did not fight with Alexander
* Defeated by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of a Brahmin named Vishnu Gupta / Chankya / Kautilya
MAURYAN Dynasty:
CHANDRA GUPTA MAURYA:
* Meet Alexander @ Taxila; Followed Jainism
* Defeated Indo Greek ruler SELEUCUS NICADOR(his ambassador was MAGASTHANESE whose work are compiled as book called INDICA)
* Because of 12 year famine in gangetic plain he abdicated the throne to his son and came to Mysore (Chandragiri) to spread Jainism in South (lead by: BHADRABAHU who fasted unto death and died->called SALLEKANA->to obtain moksha)
BINDUSARA:
* Famously called Amitra Kartha (Slayer of foes); Followed Ajivikaism
* Recieved a Greek (Syria) ambassador DERMAELUS sent by the ruler ANTIOCHUS. Bindusara requested him to sent wine, fig and a philosopher or a sophist but Antiochus sent only wine and fig as per their custom.
ASOKA:
* His concept was Dharma or Dhamma
* To propagate it, he issued edict or inscriptions---Pillar and Rock(Minor and Major(14)).These edicts tell about the Kings Life.
* Among the 14, 2nd and 13th edicts are important
* 2nd->Asoka planted trees and laid roads & sent medical missionaries to neighbouring countries viz Chera, Chola, Pandiyas
* 13th->Fought Kalinga War in 201BC; Sent Buddhist missionaries to neighbouring countries; Also used the word Andrakas
* Third Buddhist Council @ Pataliputra (250BC-Prez: Mokaliputta Tissa)
BRCHARTHRAKA:
* Last Mauriyan Ruler Killed by his minister PUSHYAMITHRA SUNGA
SUNGA Dynasty:
PUSHYAMITHRA SUNGA:
* He was a Brahmin->So Brahmin revivalism took place
* Great grammarian or Father of Yoga PATHANJALI lived in his court
AGNIMITHRA:
* He was the hero or central play of Kalidasas book MALAVIKA AGNIMITHRA
BHAGAMITHRA/BHAGAVATHA GUPTA:
* Visit of Greek Ambassador Heliodorous (he was converted into Bhagavathism){source: Besanagar Inscription, Madhya Pradesh}
DEVABHUTI:
* Last Sunga Ruler; Killed by his minister VASUDEVA KANVA
KANVA Dynasty:
VASUDEVA KANVA: First Ruler
SUSARMAN: Was defeated and killed by SATAVAHANA ruler PULAMAYI I
SATAVAHANA Dynasty:
* They were Andhra People; Language: Prakrit; Founder: Simuka; Capital: Pratisthan/Python on the bank of river Godavari
* Issued a typical Coin called Potin (made of tin)
HALA: Wrote a book called GATASAPTASATI/SATHASI->says about love and lust
GAUTMIPUTRA SATAKARANI: Gave importance to woman
PULAMAYI IV: Last Ruler
GUPTA Dynasty:
CHANDRA GUPTA: Married Lichchavi Princess Kumaradevi; Issued Kumaradevi type of coin
SAMUDRA GUPTA: Called as Indian Napolean; Son of Chandra Gupta; Veena Player; Achievements are mentioned in Allahabad Inscription written by his commander HARISENA
CHANDRA GUPTA II: Achievements mentioned in Iron Pillar in Meruli (Old Delhi); Visit of Chinese traveller FA-HIEN (But he never met King); Took the title Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya
KUMARA GUPTA: Built Nalanada University @ Bihar; First Invasion of Huna (But got defeated)
SKANDHA GUPTA: Repeated Invasion of Huna Rulers but got defeated
VISHNU GUPTA: Last Ruler of Gupta Empire
by Abilash R K
Reference: NCERT
* One Of its ruler ASHRASENA was the father of 23rd Jain Thirthangara PARASAVANATH who lived 250 years before Mahavira
* Annexed by Kosala
HARYANKA Dynasty:
BIMBISARA:
* His Foreign Policy is Matrimonial Alliance
* He married Koshala Devi, Sister of Kosala Ruler PARSENAJIT and got Kasi as dowry
AJATASHATRU:
* Father: Bimbisara
* Mother: Chellana, Lichchhavi Princes
* First Buddhist Council @ Rajgir (483 BC-Prez: Makasappa)
* Conquered Vajjis Confederation after a prolonged struggle
UDAYIN:
* Found a city called PATALIPUTRA and made it as capital
* Killed by his minister SHISUNAGA
SHISUNAGA Dynasty:
SHISUNAGA: Annexed Avanthi
KALASOKA:
* Second Buddhist Council @ Vaishali (383 BC-Prez: Sabhagami)
* Killed by his minister MAHAPADMANANDA
NANDHA Dynasty:
MAHAPADMANANDA:
* Famously called Ugrasena (Terrible Army)
* Annexed Kalinga before Asoka (source: Hathigumba Inscription, Hathigumba, Orissa during period of Kalingan King KARAVELA)
DHANANANDHA:
* Last Ruler
* Alexanders Invasion (326BC) during his period, but he did not fight with Alexander
* Defeated by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of a Brahmin named Vishnu Gupta / Chankya / Kautilya
MAURYAN Dynasty:
CHANDRA GUPTA MAURYA:
* Meet Alexander @ Taxila; Followed Jainism
* Defeated Indo Greek ruler SELEUCUS NICADOR(his ambassador was MAGASTHANESE whose work are compiled as book called INDICA)
* Because of 12 year famine in gangetic plain he abdicated the throne to his son and came to Mysore (Chandragiri) to spread Jainism in South (lead by: BHADRABAHU who fasted unto death and died->called SALLEKANA->to obtain moksha)
BINDUSARA:
* Famously called Amitra Kartha (Slayer of foes); Followed Ajivikaism
* Recieved a Greek (Syria) ambassador DERMAELUS sent by the ruler ANTIOCHUS. Bindusara requested him to sent wine, fig and a philosopher or a sophist but Antiochus sent only wine and fig as per their custom.
ASOKA:
* His concept was Dharma or Dhamma
* To propagate it, he issued edict or inscriptions---Pillar and Rock(Minor and Major(14)).These edicts tell about the Kings Life.
* Among the 14, 2nd and 13th edicts are important
* 2nd->Asoka planted trees and laid roads & sent medical missionaries to neighbouring countries viz Chera, Chola, Pandiyas
* 13th->Fought Kalinga War in 201BC; Sent Buddhist missionaries to neighbouring countries; Also used the word Andrakas
* Third Buddhist Council @ Pataliputra (250BC-Prez: Mokaliputta Tissa)
BRCHARTHRAKA:
* Last Mauriyan Ruler Killed by his minister PUSHYAMITHRA SUNGA
SUNGA Dynasty:
PUSHYAMITHRA SUNGA:
* He was a Brahmin->So Brahmin revivalism took place
* Great grammarian or Father of Yoga PATHANJALI lived in his court
AGNIMITHRA:
* He was the hero or central play of Kalidasas book MALAVIKA AGNIMITHRA
BHAGAMITHRA/BHAGAVATHA GUPTA:
* Visit of Greek Ambassador Heliodorous (he was converted into Bhagavathism){source: Besanagar Inscription, Madhya Pradesh}
DEVABHUTI:
* Last Sunga Ruler; Killed by his minister VASUDEVA KANVA
KANVA Dynasty:
VASUDEVA KANVA: First Ruler
SUSARMAN: Was defeated and killed by SATAVAHANA ruler PULAMAYI I
SATAVAHANA Dynasty:
* They were Andhra People; Language: Prakrit; Founder: Simuka; Capital: Pratisthan/Python on the bank of river Godavari
* Issued a typical Coin called Potin (made of tin)
HALA: Wrote a book called GATASAPTASATI/SATHASI->says about love and lust
GAUTMIPUTRA SATAKARANI: Gave importance to woman
PULAMAYI IV: Last Ruler
GUPTA Dynasty:
CHANDRA GUPTA: Married Lichchavi Princess Kumaradevi; Issued Kumaradevi type of coin
SAMUDRA GUPTA: Called as Indian Napolean; Son of Chandra Gupta; Veena Player; Achievements are mentioned in Allahabad Inscription written by his commander HARISENA
CHANDRA GUPTA II: Achievements mentioned in Iron Pillar in Meruli (Old Delhi); Visit of Chinese traveller FA-HIEN (But he never met King); Took the title Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya
KUMARA GUPTA: Built Nalanada University @ Bihar; First Invasion of Huna (But got defeated)
SKANDHA GUPTA: Repeated Invasion of Huna Rulers but got defeated
VISHNU GUPTA: Last Ruler of Gupta Empire
by Abilash R K
Reference: NCERT
CHILD LABOUR PROBLEMS AND PANACEA
As a very rough weather destroys the buds of the spring, so does to early an experience of lifes hard oil blight the younger promise of a childs faculties, and render any true education impossible. How true these words of Pope Leo XIII sound in the context of children being forced to work.
Despite planning , welfare programmes, legislation and administrative action in the past few decades , a large majority od children of the age group of 5-14 years continue to remain in distress and turmoil. Child laboures are exploited, exposed to hazardous work conditions and paid a pittance for their long hours of work. They are forced to leave schooling ,shouldering responsibilities for beyond their years. But no one steps forward to this. On june 17, 1999 the member states of the ILO unanimously voted to adopt convention 182 on the world forms of child labour. It was recognized that ending the commercial exploitation of children must be one of the mankinds to priorities. NGOs trade unions and various social service organization have launced innovative programmes to crub the problem of child labour.
Definitional Inadequacy
There is a definitional inadequacy of child labour. The conventional definition of a worker adopted by National sample survey organization and population census lead to an under enumeration od child workers as these data sources do not count the unpaid workers in the family enterprises. Although certain work can be benefical and can enhance a childs physical, mental, moral and social development without interfering in schooling and recreation. Studies have shown that helping parents in their household activities or other activities after school in their free time contributes positively to the all round development of a child. When such work is truly a part of the labour, either paid or unpaid and is working within or outside the family; basically, a child who is deprived of the right to education and childhood.
Child labour is a nrgative concept. It hampers the normal physical, intellectual and emotional development of a child. UNICEF classified the problems of child labour inti three categories, namely (i) Physical (ii) cognative (iii) Emotional, social and moral.
ILOs Recent Survey
There are 5.59 million child laborers toiling in the Philippines and almost all of them are working in hazardous conditions, according to a survey financed by the ILO.
The 2011 survey on children conducted by the National Statistics office (NSO) abd released Tuesday showed that out of the 29.019 million Filipino children aged 5-17 years old, about 18.9% or 5.59% million, were already working.
This is higher than the 4 million Filipino working children registered in a 2001 survey conducted by the ILO and the US Dept of labour. Of those 5.59 million children at work, 3.028 million were considered as child laborers and 2.993 million were reported to be exposed to hazardous child labour.
Worst forms of labour
The regions which had the highest incidence of child labour were central Luzon, Bicol, western visayas, Northern Mindanao, and Central Visayas, the survey showed.
Ericta said the 2.993 million child laborers exposed to hazardous conditions could include those involved in the worst forms of child labor- the sex trade, drug trafficking, other illicit activities and armed confilict.
They could be include but they re not labeled as such. This is because when you ask them where they work, they could say theyre waitresses when they are actually prostituted children.
These (2.993 million) are the ones exposed to chemicals biological hazards like bacteria that cause diseases or physical hazards.
The Philippines has pledged to reduce by 75% all worst forms of child labor by 2015, which is anchored on the united Nations millennium development goal of achieving universal education.
Child Labour in India
It is difficult to say an exact figure for the number of children engaged in childs labour in India. This difficulty is attributed to the fact that the Indian Government has been negligent to collect and analyze the relevant data regarding the incidence of child labour.
Census data shows an overall child work participation rate of 12.69% in 1961 and 7.13% in 1971. This data is misleading because the difinations of child labour are different in the two censuses ( unpaid workers are not included in the 1971 census), thus a comparision cannot be completely valid. The 1981 census reports that there were 13.6 million child labourers in India. Government extrapolation of this 1981 data place the current number od child labourers between seventeen and twenty million (Human Rights watch 1996). This extrapolation seems highly unlikely as the official National sample survey of 1983 of India reports 17.4 million child ladourers, while a study sponsored by the labour ministry, concluded that the child-labour force was 44 million in 1983. A universal difficulty in obtaining accurate data may be that individual fail to report child labour participation during survey, for fear of legal action. Moreover, all these estimates fall short of the actual figures for a number of other reasons like multiplicity of definations, different methods of computation, diverse sources of data, lack of information on the vast unorganized sector of the economy. These estimates of the magnitude of child labour in India vary
* 13.6 million The 1981 census
* 17.36 million The planning commission, 1983
* 44 million The operation research group, Baroda, 1983
* 20 Million Labour Ministry, August 1994
* 12.5 million The 2001 census.
Shocking Revelation
Acc to 2001 census, the states where child worker population is more than one million were Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh , Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh ,while the ratio of working children to the total workers was highest in Andhara Pradesh followed by Karnataka ,Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan. Several studies indicate that a majority of the working children are concentrated in the rural area. About 60% oh them are below the age of 10 years. The surveys of the meteropolitan and Mega- cities make shocking revelations. Mumbai has the largest number of child labourers. The number of children in urban areas who work in the canteens and restaurants or engaged in picking rags and hawking goods is vast but unrecorded. Among the most unfortunate ones are those who are employed in hazardous industries for instance, the fire works and match box units. Pencil industry, glass industry and so on. Most of these children work in dhabas, tea stalls and restaurants on a meager daily wage basis. Perferences for the child workers are most common in unorganized sector because here it is easy for the employers to circumvent laws.
Children especially girls are trafficked each year across international borders. They are deprived of the most fundamental human victum and are subjected to thread of violence. Victums trafficking are made to toil under horrific conditions in sweat- shops, on construction sites, in fields and in brothels. Women and children some as young as seven to eleven years old, are forced to become sex workers where they suffer physical and mental abuse and are exposed to disease, including infection by the HIV virus.
Poverty and child labour
Poverty has an obvious relationship with child labour and several studies have revealed a positive correlation, child labour is a source on income for poor families in India. Childrens work is considered essential to maintaining the economic level of households, either in the form for wages. Or to help in household enterprises or in household courses on order to free adult household member for economic activity elsewhere. For the same type of work children are paid less than their adult counterpart. What was apparent is the fact that child labourers are being exploited, evident by the pay that they receive.
Besides poverty one major factor which has a strong relationship with child labour in India is caste. If the data on child labour are compared with the caste structure of the country, it would be evident that a comparatively higher proportion of schedule caste children work at a younger age for their own and their families. Lower caste children tend to be pushed into child labour because of their familys poverty. The combination of poverty and the lack of a social security network is also responsible for bonded child labour. For the poor, there are few credit sources, and even if there are sources like cooperative loan, bank loan etc available, only few poor families manage to satisfy the essential criteria released to access those. Here enters local moneylender, with ex-orbitant high interest rates. Most of the times if is not possible for the poor to return back these loans and the parents exchange their childs labour to local moneylenders. Since the earnings of bonded child labourers are less than the interest on the loans, these bonded children ate forced to work, while interest on their loans goes on accumulating. Even if bonded child labourers are released, The same conditions of poverty that caused the initial debt cause to slip back into bondage. Lastly but not the least, the attitude of parents also contribute to child labour, some parents feel that children should work in order to develop skills useful in the job market, instead of taking advantage of a formal education. Some scholars even argue that the economic justification cited for child labour must be seen less a phenomena of poverty and more of social attitudes and sensibilities. But these arguments are weak in themselves as they seek to compare the growth stages of developing countries to that with the developing countries.
Government efforts
Non-availability of accurate and up-to-date on child labour has been a major handicap in planned intervention for eradication of this social evil. However, from the time of independence, India has committed itself to contain child labour and has stood through constitutional, and development measures that are required to eliminate child labour. Article 24 of the Indian constitution clearly states that No child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory on mine or employed in any hazardous employment. Article 39 (e) directs state policy towards securing : the health and strength of orkers and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter a vocation unsuited to their age of strength. The Indian government implemented the child labour act in 1986. The purpose of this act is to prohibit the employment of children who have no completed their 14 years in specified hazardous occupations and prosesses. Besided this govt has announced the National policy on child labour in August 1987. The Action plan under the policy included:
* Focusing of general development programmes for benefiting children whenever possible.
* Project based actions plans in areas of high concentration of child labour engaged in wage/ quasi wage employment.
August 1994, when Prime Minister Narasima Rao announced his proposal of the elimination of child labour programme. This program was designed to end child labour for two million children in hazardous industries as defined in the chilf labour act on 1986, by the year 2000. The programme revolves around an incentive for children to quit their work and enter non-formal schooling: a one hundred rupees payment as well as one meal a day for attending school.
Conclusion
Despite a plethora of laws and regulations to check this evil, the real problem is in implementation .it is clear that unless overall economic conditions in the country improve, the problem cannot be solved. Coupled with economic growth, there should also be an awareness drive to educate the middle class, entrepreneurs and other employers about taking measures to see that they do not in any way encourage this ugly phenomenon.
We have to accept the truth that we, the citizens of this country , are equally responsible for perpetuating this social evil. We have to extend a helping hand to the gonernment agencies, NGOs and other voluntary organizations that are involved in the mission to eradicate this menance.
Bibliography- News papers, Latest ILO websites. Bibhash kumar sharma article related to child labour
NAME- ROHIN KOTWAL
Despite planning , welfare programmes, legislation and administrative action in the past few decades , a large majority od children of the age group of 5-14 years continue to remain in distress and turmoil. Child laboures are exploited, exposed to hazardous work conditions and paid a pittance for their long hours of work. They are forced to leave schooling ,shouldering responsibilities for beyond their years. But no one steps forward to this. On june 17, 1999 the member states of the ILO unanimously voted to adopt convention 182 on the world forms of child labour. It was recognized that ending the commercial exploitation of children must be one of the mankinds to priorities. NGOs trade unions and various social service organization have launced innovative programmes to crub the problem of child labour.
Definitional Inadequacy
There is a definitional inadequacy of child labour. The conventional definition of a worker adopted by National sample survey organization and population census lead to an under enumeration od child workers as these data sources do not count the unpaid workers in the family enterprises. Although certain work can be benefical and can enhance a childs physical, mental, moral and social development without interfering in schooling and recreation. Studies have shown that helping parents in their household activities or other activities after school in their free time contributes positively to the all round development of a child. When such work is truly a part of the labour, either paid or unpaid and is working within or outside the family; basically, a child who is deprived of the right to education and childhood.
Child labour is a nrgative concept. It hampers the normal physical, intellectual and emotional development of a child. UNICEF classified the problems of child labour inti three categories, namely (i) Physical (ii) cognative (iii) Emotional, social and moral.
ILOs Recent Survey
There are 5.59 million child laborers toiling in the Philippines and almost all of them are working in hazardous conditions, according to a survey financed by the ILO.
The 2011 survey on children conducted by the National Statistics office (NSO) abd released Tuesday showed that out of the 29.019 million Filipino children aged 5-17 years old, about 18.9% or 5.59% million, were already working.
This is higher than the 4 million Filipino working children registered in a 2001 survey conducted by the ILO and the US Dept of labour. Of those 5.59 million children at work, 3.028 million were considered as child laborers and 2.993 million were reported to be exposed to hazardous child labour.
Worst forms of labour
The regions which had the highest incidence of child labour were central Luzon, Bicol, western visayas, Northern Mindanao, and Central Visayas, the survey showed.
Ericta said the 2.993 million child laborers exposed to hazardous conditions could include those involved in the worst forms of child labor- the sex trade, drug trafficking, other illicit activities and armed confilict.
They could be include but they re not labeled as such. This is because when you ask them where they work, they could say theyre waitresses when they are actually prostituted children.
These (2.993 million) are the ones exposed to chemicals biological hazards like bacteria that cause diseases or physical hazards.
The Philippines has pledged to reduce by 75% all worst forms of child labor by 2015, which is anchored on the united Nations millennium development goal of achieving universal education.
Child Labour in India
It is difficult to say an exact figure for the number of children engaged in childs labour in India. This difficulty is attributed to the fact that the Indian Government has been negligent to collect and analyze the relevant data regarding the incidence of child labour.
Census data shows an overall child work participation rate of 12.69% in 1961 and 7.13% in 1971. This data is misleading because the difinations of child labour are different in the two censuses ( unpaid workers are not included in the 1971 census), thus a comparision cannot be completely valid. The 1981 census reports that there were 13.6 million child labourers in India. Government extrapolation of this 1981 data place the current number od child labourers between seventeen and twenty million (Human Rights watch 1996). This extrapolation seems highly unlikely as the official National sample survey of 1983 of India reports 17.4 million child ladourers, while a study sponsored by the labour ministry, concluded that the child-labour force was 44 million in 1983. A universal difficulty in obtaining accurate data may be that individual fail to report child labour participation during survey, for fear of legal action. Moreover, all these estimates fall short of the actual figures for a number of other reasons like multiplicity of definations, different methods of computation, diverse sources of data, lack of information on the vast unorganized sector of the economy. These estimates of the magnitude of child labour in India vary
* 13.6 million The 1981 census
* 17.36 million The planning commission, 1983
* 44 million The operation research group, Baroda, 1983
* 20 Million Labour Ministry, August 1994
* 12.5 million The 2001 census.
Shocking Revelation
Acc to 2001 census, the states where child worker population is more than one million were Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh , Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh ,while the ratio of working children to the total workers was highest in Andhara Pradesh followed by Karnataka ,Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan. Several studies indicate that a majority of the working children are concentrated in the rural area. About 60% oh them are below the age of 10 years. The surveys of the meteropolitan and Mega- cities make shocking revelations. Mumbai has the largest number of child labourers. The number of children in urban areas who work in the canteens and restaurants or engaged in picking rags and hawking goods is vast but unrecorded. Among the most unfortunate ones are those who are employed in hazardous industries for instance, the fire works and match box units. Pencil industry, glass industry and so on. Most of these children work in dhabas, tea stalls and restaurants on a meager daily wage basis. Perferences for the child workers are most common in unorganized sector because here it is easy for the employers to circumvent laws.
Children especially girls are trafficked each year across international borders. They are deprived of the most fundamental human victum and are subjected to thread of violence. Victums trafficking are made to toil under horrific conditions in sweat- shops, on construction sites, in fields and in brothels. Women and children some as young as seven to eleven years old, are forced to become sex workers where they suffer physical and mental abuse and are exposed to disease, including infection by the HIV virus.
Poverty and child labour
Poverty has an obvious relationship with child labour and several studies have revealed a positive correlation, child labour is a source on income for poor families in India. Childrens work is considered essential to maintaining the economic level of households, either in the form for wages. Or to help in household enterprises or in household courses on order to free adult household member for economic activity elsewhere. For the same type of work children are paid less than their adult counterpart. What was apparent is the fact that child labourers are being exploited, evident by the pay that they receive.
Besides poverty one major factor which has a strong relationship with child labour in India is caste. If the data on child labour are compared with the caste structure of the country, it would be evident that a comparatively higher proportion of schedule caste children work at a younger age for their own and their families. Lower caste children tend to be pushed into child labour because of their familys poverty. The combination of poverty and the lack of a social security network is also responsible for bonded child labour. For the poor, there are few credit sources, and even if there are sources like cooperative loan, bank loan etc available, only few poor families manage to satisfy the essential criteria released to access those. Here enters local moneylender, with ex-orbitant high interest rates. Most of the times if is not possible for the poor to return back these loans and the parents exchange their childs labour to local moneylenders. Since the earnings of bonded child labourers are less than the interest on the loans, these bonded children ate forced to work, while interest on their loans goes on accumulating. Even if bonded child labourers are released, The same conditions of poverty that caused the initial debt cause to slip back into bondage. Lastly but not the least, the attitude of parents also contribute to child labour, some parents feel that children should work in order to develop skills useful in the job market, instead of taking advantage of a formal education. Some scholars even argue that the economic justification cited for child labour must be seen less a phenomena of poverty and more of social attitudes and sensibilities. But these arguments are weak in themselves as they seek to compare the growth stages of developing countries to that with the developing countries.
Government efforts
Non-availability of accurate and up-to-date on child labour has been a major handicap in planned intervention for eradication of this social evil. However, from the time of independence, India has committed itself to contain child labour and has stood through constitutional, and development measures that are required to eliminate child labour. Article 24 of the Indian constitution clearly states that No child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory on mine or employed in any hazardous employment. Article 39 (e) directs state policy towards securing : the health and strength of orkers and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter a vocation unsuited to their age of strength. The Indian government implemented the child labour act in 1986. The purpose of this act is to prohibit the employment of children who have no completed their 14 years in specified hazardous occupations and prosesses. Besided this govt has announced the National policy on child labour in August 1987. The Action plan under the policy included:
* Focusing of general development programmes for benefiting children whenever possible.
* Project based actions plans in areas of high concentration of child labour engaged in wage/ quasi wage employment.
August 1994, when Prime Minister Narasima Rao announced his proposal of the elimination of child labour programme. This program was designed to end child labour for two million children in hazardous industries as defined in the chilf labour act on 1986, by the year 2000. The programme revolves around an incentive for children to quit their work and enter non-formal schooling: a one hundred rupees payment as well as one meal a day for attending school.
Conclusion
Despite a plethora of laws and regulations to check this evil, the real problem is in implementation .it is clear that unless overall economic conditions in the country improve, the problem cannot be solved. Coupled with economic growth, there should also be an awareness drive to educate the middle class, entrepreneurs and other employers about taking measures to see that they do not in any way encourage this ugly phenomenon.
We have to accept the truth that we, the citizens of this country , are equally responsible for perpetuating this social evil. We have to extend a helping hand to the gonernment agencies, NGOs and other voluntary organizations that are involved in the mission to eradicate this menance.
Bibliography- News papers, Latest ILO websites. Bibhash kumar sharma article related to child labour
NAME- ROHIN KOTWAL
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