1. Prologue
2. Biosphere
3. Biotic Regions
4. Ecology and ecosystem
5. List of Biomes (Tundra in detail)
Note This article comes under the salient features of Worlds physical geography and some portions of Ecology.
Biosphere
Before getting into detail in Biosphere, a quick glance on the Types of sphere of the earth. The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four inter-connected "geo-spheres:" the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. Scientists can classify life and material on or near the surface of the earth to be in any of these four spheres.
The names of the four spheres are derived from the Greek words for stone (litho), air (atmo), water (hydro), and life (bio).
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals. It covers the entire surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of the Mariana Trench.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near the earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air. Ninety-seven(97) percent of the earth's water is in the oceans. The remaining three percent is fresh water; three-quarters of the fresh water is solid and exists in ice sheets
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet. Most of our atmosphere is located close to the earth's surface where it is most dense. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen and just under 21% oxygen; the small amount remaining is composed of carbon dioxide and other gasses.
All four spheres can be and often are present in a single location. For example, a piece of soil will of course have mineral material from the lithosphere. Additionally, there will be elements of the hydrosphere present as moisture within the soil, the biosphere as insects and plants, and even the atmosphere as pockets of air b
Life Affects the LandscapeThe life forms that make up the biosphere do more than just live on Earth. They also interact with it and are responsible for making great changes in the way that the Earth has evolved.
Consider the atmosphere. Our atmosphere is comprised of approximately 21% oxygen. Where did that oxygen come from?
The early Earth did not have very much oxygen in the air. Most of it had been trapped by the seas, and locked up in the rocks and soil. Slowly over millions of years, plants released oxygen into the air, greatly increasing its abundance, and making animal life possible.
So now with the idea of the other three sphere I feel it is easy to determine what a biosphere is?
Biosphere
The biosphere is defined as the sphere or area around the planet Earth where life exists. This zone of life is vast.
Most life forms live on or near the surface of Earth. However, some live deep within the hydrosphere (oceans, lakes and streams), while others thrive in the depths of the lithosphere (solid portion of Earth).
Biosphere is the largest part of ecosystem (But whats ecosystem?)
Ecology
It is the scientific study of the inter relationship among organism, between organism and all aspect living and non-living of the environment. The branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings. Ernst Haeckel is usually given the credit for coining the word ecology in 1866
Ecosystem
The plants and animals that are found in a particular location are referred to as an ecosystem. These plants and animals depend on each other to survive. In a delicate balance, these life forms help to sustain one another in regular patterns. Disruptions to an ecosystem can be disastrous to all. Organisms within the ecosystem (And most of the disruptions done by mankind( word mankind used sarcastically).
Ecosystem is a term used by A G Tensely in 1935, to describe a discrete unit that consists of living & non-living parts, interacting to form a stable system
NOTE The diagram for this is given below
Community The term is applied to any grouping of population of different organisms found living together in a particular environment
Population - A group of organism all of the same species, which occupies a particular area
EcoSystem in Semi-detail form (This is self explanatory just refer the diagram below)
Plants and animals depend on each other to survive. This connection of living things to each other is called biodiversity.
An ecosystem, short for 'ecological system', includes all the living organisms existing together in a particular area. These plants and animals within an area interact with each other and with the non-living elements of the area, such as climate, water, soil and so on.
An ecosystem can be very small, such as a puddle or an area under a large rock, or it can be vast, such as an ocean.
The balance of an ecosystem is delicate, and a disruption such as the introduction of a new element can damage it.
Micro: A small scale ecosystem such as a pond, puddle, tree trunk, under a rock etc. Messo: A medium scale ecosystem such as a forest or a large lake
Biome:(Explained below)
Just a small point I am adding here
Function in an ecosystem is of two types
1. Flow of Matter(cyclic) 2) Energy(suns energy uni-directional )
Energy uni-directional means the energy given by sun to us is not taken back.
Biomes
A very large ecosystem or collection of ecosystems with similar biotic and abiotic factors such as an entire Rain forest with millions of animals and trees, with many different water bodies running through them.
Ecosystem boundaries are not marked(separated) by rigid lines. They are often separated by geographical barriers such as deserts, mountains, oceans, lakes and rivers. As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other.
This is why a lake can have many small ecosystems with their own unique characteristics. Scientists call this blending ecotone(explained in brief)
Ecosystems can be put into 2 groups. If the ecosystem exists in a water body, like an ocean, freshwater or puddle, it is called an aquatic ecosystem. Those that exist outside of water bodies are called terrestrial ecosystems.
Listing of Biomes
Three important regions of the earth
1) Tropical zone
2) Temperate zone
3) Frigid zone
Note very important diagram for the whole explanation of Biomes (Only for starters like me.) Figure 1
I am listing the biomes one after another will explain the most important ones in terms of exam
1) Forest
2) Grasslands
3) Desert Biome
4) Chaparral/Mediterranean Biome
5) Tundra Biome
Forest
Forest Biome divided into two types of biome
1. Tropical Forest
2. Temperate Forest (Refer above fig)
(a)Tropical Forest again divided into two types
(i) Tropical Rain Forest (TRF)/Tropical Evergreen Forest (They are also called Selvas) Most nutrients in the tree in TRF and not in the soil.
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forest/Tropical Monsoon Forest (TMF)
Location: Near the equator in Central and South America, parts of Africa and Asia. Characteristics: Hot, humid with equatorial climate and biggest biodiversity. Almost half of the worlds species (plants and animals) live there. The trees are mostly hardwood.
Note Difference between Evergreen vegetation and Deciduous Forest
Deciduous = A term referring to the ability of some plants to lose their leaves annually. In TMF the trees shed their leaves during the dry summer months (March - May)
In the temperate zone the deciduous tree shed their trees during autumn
Evergreen trees = is one which retains its leaves throughout the year it does shed its leaves but not completely at any time of the year
(b) Temperate Forest again divided into two parts
(i) Temperate deciduous Forest West European type (Hard-Wood type)
(ii)Temperate Coniferous forest Soft-Wood type (In Russia it is called Taiga)
Grasslands
(i)Tropical Grassland (Nothing but combination of Grass + Scattered trees). Tropical grasslands are tall, thick rough, coarse & lack nutrients
Savannah/TropicalGrasslands:Location: Central Africa (Kenya, Zambia, Tanzania), northern Australia and central South America(Venezuela/Brazil).Characteristics: Hot and dry, mainly grass, scrub and occasional trees. This biome has two distinct seasons a dry season and a rainy season. During the dry season the vegetation dies and re-appears rapidly during the rainy season.
(ii)Temperate Grassland
Here the grasses are short + soft + nutritious
Location: Mainly found in the Pustaz in Hungary, the Veldt in South Africa, the Pampas in Argentina and the Prairies in the USA.Characteristics: Many grass and trees with little large bushes. Climates are temperate continental with mild weather and moderate rainfall.
Different regional names for grasslands
Praries in North America
Pamper in Argentina
Campos in Brazil
Lamos in Venezuela
Pustaz in Hungry
Steppes in Russia
Velds in South Africa
Downs in Australia
Tundra Biome
Tundra biome is naturally speaking the most fragile biome as it lacks diversity. The tundra is near the North Pole. Winters are very cold. Summers last for a very short time.
Under the soil (Permafrost soil explained below) the earth is frozen and never melts.
About 1/5 of the Earth is tundra. Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes. The word comes from a Finnish word and means 'treeless plain'. There is arctic tundra and alpine tundra. But in Russian Language is means Marshy Region
Permafrost Soil Permafrost(Permanently frozen) a layer of permanently frozen ground in areas where temperatures are too low to permit complete thawing(ice becoming liquid or soft as a result of warming up). Permafrost underlies most of the tundra regions
Talik is an area of unfrozen ground surrounded by permafrost.
Permafrost generally begins at a depth less than a meter from the surface.(Here active layer is the surface). When the upper Ice Cover melts during summer the sub-soil still remains frozen & the result is wetlands throughout the region.
Tundra has areas lying roughly beyond 65 Degrees North. These areas are very cold & have annual rainfall less than or equal to 25 cm (mostly in summer). Tundra is the most continuous of all biomes as it occurs unbroken along the margins of northern continents
Summer isotherm of 10 degrees marks the beginning & 0 degrees marks the limit on the pole wards side Winters are very long(9-10 months) with very severe temperature(-35 to -40 degrees). In summer season, because of the long day length & continuous insolation but the suns rays are very inclined so that theres very diffused heating.
Regions under tundra biomes
1. Iceland
2. Green Land
3. Alaska
4. Siberia
5. Northern most parts of Canada
6. Northern Scandinavian parts
Ecotone
Note Rarely the boundaries between 2 adjacent or neighboring biomes are discrete or distinct, instead they blend with the neighboring biomes through a transitions zone known as ecotone. This transition zone has high species diversity & density as compared to any of the neighboring Biomes.
Ecotone arises naturally for e.g.
Ecotone may also reflect human intervention for e.g. the agricultural clearance of formerly forested areas.
Bush trees - Tundra
A similar Ecotone is built between Southern Part of tundra and temperate coniferous forest (Temperate zone) (Refer figure 1). It consists of short height trees E.g. Alders and Junipers
Grass Tundra
Next to bush tundra there is grass tundra it consists of e.g. mosses, lichens and Rhododendrons (small plants with multicolored flowers)
Note (The vegetation is well adopted to withstand extreme cold & to survive on a minimum moisture. It can also remain alive beneath the snow in winter)
Chaparral/Mediterranean Biomes
The chaparral biome is found in small sections of most continents, including the west coast of the United States, the west coast of South America, the Cape Town area of South Africa, the western tip of Australia and the coastal areas of the Mediterranean.
The chaparral is characterized as being very hot and dry. The winter is very mild and is usually about 50F (10C). Most of the rain in this biome comes in the winter. The summer is hot and dry at up to 100F (37.5C). This makes fires and droughts very common.
Desert Biome
A desert is a place that gets just a bit of rain every year. Some deserts get almost no rain at all. A desert can be very hot in daytime and cold at night.Some deserts are cold all the time. A desert is a dry area where less than 50 cm of rain falls each year. About one fifth of the Earth's surface is desert.
Deserts can be hot or cold. The Australian Desert is one example of a hot desert, and the Gobi Desert in Mongolia is an example of a cold desert. Antarctica is the world's largest desert.
The Atacama Desert of Chile and the Sahara Desert in Africa receive less than 1.5 cm a year, if at all.
Although rain doesn't fall very often in deserts, sometimes not for years, there can be sudden, heavy rains that cause flooding.
Deserts can be found along coastlines, such as the Atacama Desert, or in the interior of continents, such as the Great Basin Desert of North America.
Note A desert biome represents the adaptations of the life most admirably.
And this you can make out by just reading the facts mentioned above.
By Arun Chettiar
References -
1. G C Leong Book (Comprehensively explained)
2. www.google.com
3. Atlas Map
Showing posts with label Africa. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Africa. Show all posts
Monday, January 13, 2014
India Africa Relations
India Africa Relations
Africa - "cradle of human civilization" and India- "an ancient civilization", both are connected through the Indian Ocean and have in past shared a close relationship that hinged on the common struggle against colonialism, apartheid, poverty, disease, illiteracy and hunger.
The 21st century has seen a renewed initiative of India with the India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) in 2008. Some similar initiatives have been taken by other Asian countries (China) and few critics call it a new scramble for Africa by Asian countries to acquire African raw materials and energy resources.
Africa has half the membership of Non-Aligned Movement, one-third of the UN andoccupies a prominent role in South-South cooperation. Both regions have undergone similar kind of socio-political and economic transformations, including the liberalization of their economies. As members of the NAM, the Commonwealth, G-15 and the newly formed Indian Ocean Rim initiative, India and Africa share common views on most international issues.
Historical ties:
* Contacts between India and Africa can be traced back to ancient times when Indian merchants from its western seaboard traded along the eastern coasts of Africa.
* References in Vedic scriptures, as well as the travelogues and navigators diaries, also denote that strong relations existed between the two ancient cultures.
* A large number of Africans came to India during medieval times, formed a major section of Muslim armies and later settled here; calledsiddis. There is a significant population of people representing the Indian diaspora in Africa (especially east).
* Regular trade relations existed between India and Egypt in the eighth century BC.
* During AD 1503-08 cotton goods and silk products were exported from ports of Gujarat and Bengal to Berber and Ethiopia.
* During 1692-93 there was considerable increase in Ethiopias trade with India.
* In 1882, the Indian navy undertook submarine operations for the removal of obstructions in the Suez Canal.
* In April 1893, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi reached South Africa to represent a client in commercial transaction but on being subjected to racial indignities, decided to stay back in order to defend the rights of his compatriots. His philosophy, which he successfully put into practice to achieve Indias independence, inspired a generation of African leaders in their own national liberation campaigns.
* In 1895, building of Kenya-Uganda Railway began which encouraged the immigration of Indians who fanned out as shopkeepers and construction workers.
* In 1914, theGandhi-Smuts agreementwas concluded.
* In 1926, the South African National Congress and the Indian National Congress held a round table conference. This conference resulted in theCape Town Agreement, which recognized Indians as potentially equal citizens.
After end of colonialism in Africa, Indo-African relations were expected to strengthen. However, on the whole, the flourishing of trade and economic exchanges did not happen. This happened because of lack of resources and the fact that many new countries were forced to look to former colonial rulers for assistance in meeting their developmental needs.
The Bandung conference of 1955, which paved the way for the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), consolidated this Afro-Asian solidarity. Indias policy was aimed to end racial domination and discrimination in the African territories.
Ghana, India and Nigeria were leading members of the NAM, the Commonwealth and the Group of 77 and supported one another at international forums on various issues.
Thus, The Bandung Conference (1955) and the Afro-Asian Peoples Solidarity Conference of Cairo (1958), NAM, the United Nations, the Commonwealth, and Afro-Asian organizations were mainly on the lines of anti-colonialism and anti-racism. Indias moderate stand on issues like Mau Mau rebellion, the Algerian war of independence and the Congolese civil war did not appeal to Africans. On the other hand, the Chinese militancy and advocacy for armed struggle did appeal to Africans.
South-south engagement
In the aftermath of the Chinese attack in 1962, India stopped treating African countries as a bloc and becamemore selective in its friendship.
International situations andIndias achievements at home played an important role in Indias move to befriend African countries.
With newly acquired self-confidence, in terms of its achievements at home (like green revolution, increasing military and scientific capabilities), Indian policy became more proactive towards the African countries.
Major Achievements-
* India became a power to which Africa turned for help and assistance, and as a model for development.
* India utilized its diplomatic strength in international forums like the UN, NAM and Group of 77, to develop south-south co-operation. At the Lusaka Summit (1970), the Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, gave the call for south-south co-operation by pledging Indian technology and human resources for this.
* Both the African states and India underlined the need for economic co-operation among themselves.
* India accordeddiplomatic status to the African National Congress (ANC) in 1967 and the South-West African Peoples Organization (SWAPO) in 1985.
* India worked closely with the African countries in their fight against apartheid in South Africa and Namibia.
* The material assistance remained meagre due to Indias own limitation on giving more in those terms.
Economic ties:
Africa acknowledges Indias economic growth and finds the Indian model relevant. India provides Africa with opportunities in different areas, having launched a number of initiatives for closer co-operation with Africa, which include theFocus Africa Program (2002/03)to increase trade with the continent and theTechno-Economic Approach for Africa India Movement (TEAM-9) initiative in 2003 to enhance co-operation with western and central African countries.
* India has an annual trade of roughly $46 billion with Africa. Indias bilateral trade with Africa has grown exponentially. Africas share of Indias overall trade has also increased.
* The least developed African nations have got preferential access to the Indian markets.
* Human resources development and capacity building
* India also committed itself to establishing 19 centres of excellence and training institutions in different fields across Africa. One of the strong focuses of the current Indian partnership with Africa is the empowerment of people through capacity building and human resource development, specifically highlighted under the India-Africa Framework of Cooperation agreed at the 2008 IA Summit.
* India has supported theNew Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) initiative, information and communication technology (ICT), scholarships and training slots for African students under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program. Africa is now the largest recipient of Indias ITEC programs.
* PSLV-C15 Indian rocket was used at Thumba Launch Station (KERALA), in July 2010,to launch an Algerian satellite.With this launch it could be said that India has started using space diplomacy as a foreign tool in Africa.
* The Cumulative Indian investment in Africa stood at $90 billion in 2010 and is likely to rise dramatically in the years ahead.
* Bhartis investment in Africa is seen as an example of how Indian companies are looking at long term partnerships in Africa.
* Indian corporate houses like Tata, Balaji, OVL, Essar, Sanmar, Ranbaxy and Reliance have a presence in Africa.
* Energy cooperation
In order to diversify its energy sources, India is investing in energy assets overseas. In this context Africas energy resources are very significant. Almost one quarter of Indias crude oil imports are sourced from Africa. The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Videsh Limited(OVL) has large overseas investment in Sudan. It has also acquiredstakes in Senegal and other African countries like Cte dIvoire, Libya, Egypt, Nigeria and Gabon.
Military security co-operation:
India provides military training to officers of various African defence forces, one of the important component of Indias Africa policy as Africa lacks military training institutions.
* Since the 1960s India has providedmilitary trainingto a number of African countries, primarily from Anglophone Africa. The training covers fields such as security and strategic studies, defence management, artillery, electronics, mechanical, marine and aeronautical engineering, anti-marine warfare, logistics management and qualitative assurance services. At the request of the African Union Commission, initial discussions of defence cooperation and peace-keeping activities were emphasised in 2006.
* Maritime co-operation:The growing concern in the Indian Ocean owing to piracy, smuggling, drugs- and arms-trafficking, and terrorism all threaten the security of the Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs). The Indian Navy regularly engages in naval exercises and naval diplomacy along the African littoral, and at the national level over the past few years India has deepened security and diplomatic co-operation with various AU members like South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius and the Seychelles. Naval co-operation between India and South Africa was already apparent by 2000.
Indian diaspora in Africa:
* Within Africa, there are several scattered Indian communities.
* Bulk of diaspora is in South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, and Nigeria.
* They are typically engaged in trade and professions like medicine and law.
* After independence of African nations, some prospered in particular countries while elsewhere they were regarded with suspicion. Thus, they were unable to be a useful bridge between Africa and India.
India-Africa Forum Summit:
* First held in 2008 at New Delhi.
* It was first such meeting between the heads of state/govt of India and 14 countries of Africa chosen by the African Union.
* Delhi Declaration was adopted.
* Second India-Africa Forum Summit held in 2011 at Addis Ababa.
* Addis Ababa Declaration was adopted.
* Theme: Enhancing Partnership: Shared Vision.
* It envisages economic and political cooperation, and also cooperation in a host of other areas including Sci&Tech, social and infrastructural development, tourism, culture and sports.
* Climate change cooperation.
* Urging major economies to work together and enhance macro-economic policy coordination.
* Other initiatives include- India-Africa Food-Processing Cluster, India-Africa Integrated Textiles Cluster, India-Africa Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, India-Africa University for Life and Earth Sciences.
* India announced $5 bn credit line over the next 3 years.
Pan-Africa E-Network Project (2004):
* e-medicine and e-education project.
* to connect India with all 53 countries of African Union through a satellite and fibre-optic network for sharing Indias expertise in education and healthcare. The Network will be connected by a satellite/fibre optical network.
* to provide tele-medicine, tele-education and VVIP connectivity to these countries.
* 5 universities (IGNOU, Universities of Delhi and Madras, BITS at Pilani, and Amity University) have been linked into the Network.
* Being implemented in 47 African countries.
Initiatives taken by Government of India for Africa:
* India-Africa Forum Summit.
* 2nd India-Japan dialogue on Africa was held in New Delhi in 2011. It is an institutionalised event held biannually.
* IGNOU to establish Indo-Africa Virtual University.
* Team -9 (Techno-Economic Approach for Africa India Movement) framework to enhance commercial cooperation with West Africa (Burkina Faso, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Senegal).
* Putting in place US$500 mn Lines of Credit (LOC) and identifying priority sectors in the 8 countries which would be financed out of the LOC.
* The Ministry of Commerce and Industry, GOI, Ministry of External Affairs, Export-Import Bank of India and Africa Development Bank initiated the India- Africa Project partnership Conclave, in New Delhi. The Conclave created platforms for decision maker from Africa countries to meet heads of India companies involved in engineering, consultancy, construction and supply of project goods, etc.
* The India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA), Trilateral Commission of the foreign ministers of India, Brazil and South Africa (2004) would meet in regular intervals.
* In Uganda, Indian technologyled to nearly three times more electricity to be generated, from 300 MW to 1000 MW than had been planned at Karuma project.
* New Delhi is also planning to set up over 100 training institutes that seek to foster the rise of a middle class in Africa and provide the African youth opportunities for self-advancement.
* India is the third largest contributor UN Peace-Keeping Operations in Africa with more than 9300 peacekeepers deployed in various UNPKO in fragile and conflict ridden states in Africa.
China vs. India in Africa:
Chinas role in Africa: before becoming the economic power, China successfully implemented the massive Tanzam rail project between Tanzania and Zambia.
Forum on China-Africa Cooperation- started in 2000 with 5 summits being held till now.
* Chinas $200bn trade with Africa is way ahead of Indias $46 bn.
* Unlike Chinas venture in Africa, that has focussed on extractive resources, oil and infrastructural projects, India chose to focus on capacity building as the defining template of its engagement with Africa.
* Chinese companies are active across the continent with big infrastructure projects, including ports, railways and sports stadiums. By contrast, Indian initiatives are led by individual companies looking to expand in sectors such as telecom, agriculture, the automotive industry and education.
* Indias all-round cooperation with Africa through People2people, govt2govt, & business2business, is different from Chinas, largely, top-down Govt2Govt approach.
* Like China, India organises summits to engage Africa. Deals worth millions have been discussed, but implementation is poor.
* However, the Chinese companies go with their own people to do the work in Africa, leaving the locals in the lurch, unlike India, which employs locals.
* China excels in large infrastructural projects while the Indians have an edge in ICT, capacity building and training, and emerging areas like floriculture.
* The Indian ability to relate to Africans is also much greater, which is why non-Indian MNCs prefer to use Indians as managers for projects involving interactions with local officials and populations.
* Indias democratic culture and consultative approach make it an attractive partner for African nations looking to enhance their own skills.
Form Africas perspective, both India and china have core competencies which may complement each other. Thus, Africa is looking forward to do business with both the countries at the same time and there seems to be enough room for the two. But India should not become complacent as African economy will start to emerge in the world set-up, competition from the world will be stiff. India should also avoid the path of exploitation which other big powers have taken. Indias participative model will slowly but steadily build a strong bond between India and African nations on the foundation of mutual trust and benefit rather than the acquisitive approach of China.
Future path: what needs to be done.
* Ramp-up diplomatic presence in Africa.
* Maintaining embassies with competent diplomats rather than those who see duty in Africa as a punishment.
* Establishing special purpose vehicles to pursue strategic investments and business opportunities (like in mining, infrastructure, etc.) in Africa.
* Strict audit of money disburses through Line of Credit for Africa.
* Ensuring corporate social responsibility through all Indian FDI projects in Africa.
* Greater effort to build on the domain knowledge and cultural equity emanating from the Indian diaspora in Africa.
* Indias poor knowledge about Africa, often based on colonial stories and selective reports on famines, droughts and wars, have created distorted images. These need to be corrected through informed media and cultural exchange.
* By collectively revolutionising the African maritime sector, and by creating Indian stakes in Africa's maritime economy, India and Africa will have an opportunity to jointly forge a truly robust maritime partnership.
* Genuine person-to-person interaction could foster a deeper exchange between the two through civil society associations, information technology, travel and educational trips.
* India, as the largest democracy, can provide assistance in setting-up democratic structures in African countries facing political upheaval.
* India needs to strengthen relationships in 3 spheres- People2People, Govt2Govt and Business2Business.
* For India it is important to reduce dependence on Middle East for oil and for the African countries it was important to find more buyers to get the best price for their products. This growing dependence on Africa will be a key dynamic that will shape trade and investment with India.
* Western markets are turning protectionist by raising non-tariff barriers to trade and investment from developing countries. India and Africa can counter this with selling products and services to each other. There are several market similarities that can be built upon.
* India should negotiate FTAs with the African nations and groups of nations.
* Governments on both sides will have to invest in improved transport and logistics linkages.
* India wants to be a permanent member of UNSC and it will require support of member states of UN, & the support from 53 African nations needs to be harnessed for this.
* India and Africa can also cooperate on countering piracy of the coast of Somalia. To counter piracy, a working group has been set up to look into the economics of piracy and three ships of the Indian Navy patrol the Gulf, the Arabian Sea and the area near Seychelles at any given time.
Such moves could usher in Gandhian notions of the ties going beyond material interests and embracing a more humane non-exploitative relationship.
India is therefore, committed to the progress and development of Africa. Indias economic package of USD 5.7bn for the African countries is demonstrative of the time-tested ties and commitment between the two. The growing economic interdependence of India and African countries will add confidence to their dealings with the rest of the world.
Indian-African relations over the years have witnessed various changes, moving from a period of high political, emotional and moral solidarity, to a more material, concrete and developmental approach. This is an important feature of Indias new model of engagement with Africa. India and Africa have maintained magnanimous relations so far, and it is anticipated that the same will be true for the ages to come.
NAME: DAMINI Singh
References:
http://www.indoafrican.org/Indias%20Iniatied.pdf
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-23225998
http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ideas/2012/04/india-and-africa-towards-greater-cooperation-and-growth/
http://progressiveindians4change.blogspot.in/2012/04/rediscovering-dark-continent-indo.html?m=1
http://www.erewise.com/current-affairs/india-africa-relation_art52389f9bbc565.html#.UrwoC_QW1QE
http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2013/07/03/india-and-africa-ties-challenges-and-opportunities/
http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column-india-africa-ties-energised-with-oil-and-other-products-1883659
http://meaindia.nic.in/staticfile/Pan-Project-March-12.pdf
Africa - "cradle of human civilization" and India- "an ancient civilization", both are connected through the Indian Ocean and have in past shared a close relationship that hinged on the common struggle against colonialism, apartheid, poverty, disease, illiteracy and hunger.
The 21st century has seen a renewed initiative of India with the India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) in 2008. Some similar initiatives have been taken by other Asian countries (China) and few critics call it a new scramble for Africa by Asian countries to acquire African raw materials and energy resources.
Africa has half the membership of Non-Aligned Movement, one-third of the UN andoccupies a prominent role in South-South cooperation. Both regions have undergone similar kind of socio-political and economic transformations, including the liberalization of their economies. As members of the NAM, the Commonwealth, G-15 and the newly formed Indian Ocean Rim initiative, India and Africa share common views on most international issues.
Historical ties:
* Contacts between India and Africa can be traced back to ancient times when Indian merchants from its western seaboard traded along the eastern coasts of Africa.
* References in Vedic scriptures, as well as the travelogues and navigators diaries, also denote that strong relations existed between the two ancient cultures.
* A large number of Africans came to India during medieval times, formed a major section of Muslim armies and later settled here; calledsiddis. There is a significant population of people representing the Indian diaspora in Africa (especially east).
* Regular trade relations existed between India and Egypt in the eighth century BC.
* During AD 1503-08 cotton goods and silk products were exported from ports of Gujarat and Bengal to Berber and Ethiopia.
* During 1692-93 there was considerable increase in Ethiopias trade with India.
* In 1882, the Indian navy undertook submarine operations for the removal of obstructions in the Suez Canal.
* In April 1893, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi reached South Africa to represent a client in commercial transaction but on being subjected to racial indignities, decided to stay back in order to defend the rights of his compatriots. His philosophy, which he successfully put into practice to achieve Indias independence, inspired a generation of African leaders in their own national liberation campaigns.
* In 1895, building of Kenya-Uganda Railway began which encouraged the immigration of Indians who fanned out as shopkeepers and construction workers.
* In 1914, theGandhi-Smuts agreementwas concluded.
* In 1926, the South African National Congress and the Indian National Congress held a round table conference. This conference resulted in theCape Town Agreement, which recognized Indians as potentially equal citizens.
After end of colonialism in Africa, Indo-African relations were expected to strengthen. However, on the whole, the flourishing of trade and economic exchanges did not happen. This happened because of lack of resources and the fact that many new countries were forced to look to former colonial rulers for assistance in meeting their developmental needs.
The Bandung conference of 1955, which paved the way for the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), consolidated this Afro-Asian solidarity. Indias policy was aimed to end racial domination and discrimination in the African territories.
Ghana, India and Nigeria were leading members of the NAM, the Commonwealth and the Group of 77 and supported one another at international forums on various issues.
Thus, The Bandung Conference (1955) and the Afro-Asian Peoples Solidarity Conference of Cairo (1958), NAM, the United Nations, the Commonwealth, and Afro-Asian organizations were mainly on the lines of anti-colonialism and anti-racism. Indias moderate stand on issues like Mau Mau rebellion, the Algerian war of independence and the Congolese civil war did not appeal to Africans. On the other hand, the Chinese militancy and advocacy for armed struggle did appeal to Africans.
South-south engagement
In the aftermath of the Chinese attack in 1962, India stopped treating African countries as a bloc and becamemore selective in its friendship.
International situations andIndias achievements at home played an important role in Indias move to befriend African countries.
With newly acquired self-confidence, in terms of its achievements at home (like green revolution, increasing military and scientific capabilities), Indian policy became more proactive towards the African countries.
Major Achievements-
* India became a power to which Africa turned for help and assistance, and as a model for development.
* India utilized its diplomatic strength in international forums like the UN, NAM and Group of 77, to develop south-south co-operation. At the Lusaka Summit (1970), the Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, gave the call for south-south co-operation by pledging Indian technology and human resources for this.
* Both the African states and India underlined the need for economic co-operation among themselves.
* India accordeddiplomatic status to the African National Congress (ANC) in 1967 and the South-West African Peoples Organization (SWAPO) in 1985.
* India worked closely with the African countries in their fight against apartheid in South Africa and Namibia.
* The material assistance remained meagre due to Indias own limitation on giving more in those terms.
Economic ties:
Africa acknowledges Indias economic growth and finds the Indian model relevant. India provides Africa with opportunities in different areas, having launched a number of initiatives for closer co-operation with Africa, which include theFocus Africa Program (2002/03)to increase trade with the continent and theTechno-Economic Approach for Africa India Movement (TEAM-9) initiative in 2003 to enhance co-operation with western and central African countries.
* India has an annual trade of roughly $46 billion with Africa. Indias bilateral trade with Africa has grown exponentially. Africas share of Indias overall trade has also increased.
* The least developed African nations have got preferential access to the Indian markets.
* Human resources development and capacity building
* India also committed itself to establishing 19 centres of excellence and training institutions in different fields across Africa. One of the strong focuses of the current Indian partnership with Africa is the empowerment of people through capacity building and human resource development, specifically highlighted under the India-Africa Framework of Cooperation agreed at the 2008 IA Summit.
* India has supported theNew Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) initiative, information and communication technology (ICT), scholarships and training slots for African students under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program. Africa is now the largest recipient of Indias ITEC programs.
* PSLV-C15 Indian rocket was used at Thumba Launch Station (KERALA), in July 2010,to launch an Algerian satellite.With this launch it could be said that India has started using space diplomacy as a foreign tool in Africa.
* The Cumulative Indian investment in Africa stood at $90 billion in 2010 and is likely to rise dramatically in the years ahead.
* Bhartis investment in Africa is seen as an example of how Indian companies are looking at long term partnerships in Africa.
* Indian corporate houses like Tata, Balaji, OVL, Essar, Sanmar, Ranbaxy and Reliance have a presence in Africa.
* Energy cooperation
In order to diversify its energy sources, India is investing in energy assets overseas. In this context Africas energy resources are very significant. Almost one quarter of Indias crude oil imports are sourced from Africa. The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Videsh Limited(OVL) has large overseas investment in Sudan. It has also acquiredstakes in Senegal and other African countries like Cte dIvoire, Libya, Egypt, Nigeria and Gabon.
Military security co-operation:
India provides military training to officers of various African defence forces, one of the important component of Indias Africa policy as Africa lacks military training institutions.
* Since the 1960s India has providedmilitary trainingto a number of African countries, primarily from Anglophone Africa. The training covers fields such as security and strategic studies, defence management, artillery, electronics, mechanical, marine and aeronautical engineering, anti-marine warfare, logistics management and qualitative assurance services. At the request of the African Union Commission, initial discussions of defence cooperation and peace-keeping activities were emphasised in 2006.
* Maritime co-operation:The growing concern in the Indian Ocean owing to piracy, smuggling, drugs- and arms-trafficking, and terrorism all threaten the security of the Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs). The Indian Navy regularly engages in naval exercises and naval diplomacy along the African littoral, and at the national level over the past few years India has deepened security and diplomatic co-operation with various AU members like South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius and the Seychelles. Naval co-operation between India and South Africa was already apparent by 2000.
Indian diaspora in Africa:
* Within Africa, there are several scattered Indian communities.
* Bulk of diaspora is in South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, and Nigeria.
* They are typically engaged in trade and professions like medicine and law.
* After independence of African nations, some prospered in particular countries while elsewhere they were regarded with suspicion. Thus, they were unable to be a useful bridge between Africa and India.
India-Africa Forum Summit:
* First held in 2008 at New Delhi.
* It was first such meeting between the heads of state/govt of India and 14 countries of Africa chosen by the African Union.
* Delhi Declaration was adopted.
* Second India-Africa Forum Summit held in 2011 at Addis Ababa.
* Addis Ababa Declaration was adopted.
* Theme: Enhancing Partnership: Shared Vision.
* It envisages economic and political cooperation, and also cooperation in a host of other areas including Sci&Tech, social and infrastructural development, tourism, culture and sports.
* Climate change cooperation.
* Urging major economies to work together and enhance macro-economic policy coordination.
* Other initiatives include- India-Africa Food-Processing Cluster, India-Africa Integrated Textiles Cluster, India-Africa Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, India-Africa University for Life and Earth Sciences.
* India announced $5 bn credit line over the next 3 years.
Pan-Africa E-Network Project (2004):
* e-medicine and e-education project.
* to connect India with all 53 countries of African Union through a satellite and fibre-optic network for sharing Indias expertise in education and healthcare. The Network will be connected by a satellite/fibre optical network.
* to provide tele-medicine, tele-education and VVIP connectivity to these countries.
* 5 universities (IGNOU, Universities of Delhi and Madras, BITS at Pilani, and Amity University) have been linked into the Network.
* Being implemented in 47 African countries.
Initiatives taken by Government of India for Africa:
* India-Africa Forum Summit.
* 2nd India-Japan dialogue on Africa was held in New Delhi in 2011. It is an institutionalised event held biannually.
* IGNOU to establish Indo-Africa Virtual University.
* Team -9 (Techno-Economic Approach for Africa India Movement) framework to enhance commercial cooperation with West Africa (Burkina Faso, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Senegal).
* Putting in place US$500 mn Lines of Credit (LOC) and identifying priority sectors in the 8 countries which would be financed out of the LOC.
* The Ministry of Commerce and Industry, GOI, Ministry of External Affairs, Export-Import Bank of India and Africa Development Bank initiated the India- Africa Project partnership Conclave, in New Delhi. The Conclave created platforms for decision maker from Africa countries to meet heads of India companies involved in engineering, consultancy, construction and supply of project goods, etc.
* The India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA), Trilateral Commission of the foreign ministers of India, Brazil and South Africa (2004) would meet in regular intervals.
* In Uganda, Indian technologyled to nearly three times more electricity to be generated, from 300 MW to 1000 MW than had been planned at Karuma project.
* New Delhi is also planning to set up over 100 training institutes that seek to foster the rise of a middle class in Africa and provide the African youth opportunities for self-advancement.
* India is the third largest contributor UN Peace-Keeping Operations in Africa with more than 9300 peacekeepers deployed in various UNPKO in fragile and conflict ridden states in Africa.
China vs. India in Africa:
Chinas role in Africa: before becoming the economic power, China successfully implemented the massive Tanzam rail project between Tanzania and Zambia.
Forum on China-Africa Cooperation- started in 2000 with 5 summits being held till now.
* Chinas $200bn trade with Africa is way ahead of Indias $46 bn.
* Unlike Chinas venture in Africa, that has focussed on extractive resources, oil and infrastructural projects, India chose to focus on capacity building as the defining template of its engagement with Africa.
* Chinese companies are active across the continent with big infrastructure projects, including ports, railways and sports stadiums. By contrast, Indian initiatives are led by individual companies looking to expand in sectors such as telecom, agriculture, the automotive industry and education.
* Indias all-round cooperation with Africa through People2people, govt2govt, & business2business, is different from Chinas, largely, top-down Govt2Govt approach.
* Like China, India organises summits to engage Africa. Deals worth millions have been discussed, but implementation is poor.
* However, the Chinese companies go with their own people to do the work in Africa, leaving the locals in the lurch, unlike India, which employs locals.
* China excels in large infrastructural projects while the Indians have an edge in ICT, capacity building and training, and emerging areas like floriculture.
* The Indian ability to relate to Africans is also much greater, which is why non-Indian MNCs prefer to use Indians as managers for projects involving interactions with local officials and populations.
* Indias democratic culture and consultative approach make it an attractive partner for African nations looking to enhance their own skills.
Form Africas perspective, both India and china have core competencies which may complement each other. Thus, Africa is looking forward to do business with both the countries at the same time and there seems to be enough room for the two. But India should not become complacent as African economy will start to emerge in the world set-up, competition from the world will be stiff. India should also avoid the path of exploitation which other big powers have taken. Indias participative model will slowly but steadily build a strong bond between India and African nations on the foundation of mutual trust and benefit rather than the acquisitive approach of China.
Future path: what needs to be done.
* Ramp-up diplomatic presence in Africa.
* Maintaining embassies with competent diplomats rather than those who see duty in Africa as a punishment.
* Establishing special purpose vehicles to pursue strategic investments and business opportunities (like in mining, infrastructure, etc.) in Africa.
* Strict audit of money disburses through Line of Credit for Africa.
* Ensuring corporate social responsibility through all Indian FDI projects in Africa.
* Greater effort to build on the domain knowledge and cultural equity emanating from the Indian diaspora in Africa.
* Indias poor knowledge about Africa, often based on colonial stories and selective reports on famines, droughts and wars, have created distorted images. These need to be corrected through informed media and cultural exchange.
* By collectively revolutionising the African maritime sector, and by creating Indian stakes in Africa's maritime economy, India and Africa will have an opportunity to jointly forge a truly robust maritime partnership.
* Genuine person-to-person interaction could foster a deeper exchange between the two through civil society associations, information technology, travel and educational trips.
* India, as the largest democracy, can provide assistance in setting-up democratic structures in African countries facing political upheaval.
* India needs to strengthen relationships in 3 spheres- People2People, Govt2Govt and Business2Business.
* For India it is important to reduce dependence on Middle East for oil and for the African countries it was important to find more buyers to get the best price for their products. This growing dependence on Africa will be a key dynamic that will shape trade and investment with India.
* Western markets are turning protectionist by raising non-tariff barriers to trade and investment from developing countries. India and Africa can counter this with selling products and services to each other. There are several market similarities that can be built upon.
* India should negotiate FTAs with the African nations and groups of nations.
* Governments on both sides will have to invest in improved transport and logistics linkages.
* India wants to be a permanent member of UNSC and it will require support of member states of UN, & the support from 53 African nations needs to be harnessed for this.
* India and Africa can also cooperate on countering piracy of the coast of Somalia. To counter piracy, a working group has been set up to look into the economics of piracy and three ships of the Indian Navy patrol the Gulf, the Arabian Sea and the area near Seychelles at any given time.
Such moves could usher in Gandhian notions of the ties going beyond material interests and embracing a more humane non-exploitative relationship.
India is therefore, committed to the progress and development of Africa. Indias economic package of USD 5.7bn for the African countries is demonstrative of the time-tested ties and commitment between the two. The growing economic interdependence of India and African countries will add confidence to their dealings with the rest of the world.
Indian-African relations over the years have witnessed various changes, moving from a period of high political, emotional and moral solidarity, to a more material, concrete and developmental approach. This is an important feature of Indias new model of engagement with Africa. India and Africa have maintained magnanimous relations so far, and it is anticipated that the same will be true for the ages to come.
NAME: DAMINI Singh
References:
http://www.indoafrican.org/Indias%20Iniatied.pdf
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-23225998
http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ideas/2012/04/india-and-africa-towards-greater-cooperation-and-growth/
http://progressiveindians4change.blogspot.in/2012/04/rediscovering-dark-continent-indo.html?m=1
http://www.erewise.com/current-affairs/india-africa-relation_art52389f9bbc565.html#.UrwoC_QW1QE
http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2013/07/03/india-and-africa-ties-challenges-and-opportunities/
http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column-india-africa-ties-energised-with-oil-and-other-products-1883659
http://meaindia.nic.in/staticfile/Pan-Project-March-12.pdf
e-technology to aid farmers
e-technology to aid farmers
Greenhouse gases from agriculture account forover ten percentof total emissions globally, roughly equivalent to the entire global transport sector. Meanwhile, it is estimated that agricultural production will need to increase by about 70% by 2050 to keep pace with global population growth. Whats more, the real impacts of climate change on the agricultural sector are likely going to be hardest felt in many of those countries whose people rely on agriculture most for their livelihoods. In sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, for example, some estimates show areduction in the productivityof most major food crops as a result of changes to the climate over the next forty years.
The increasing availability of affordable technologies that have the potential to reduce greenhouse gases and increase productivity in agriculture. Information and communications technologies, like the mobile phone, video, and even radio. Asmobile phone penetration ratescontinue to grow at a rapid rate throughout the globe, farmers now have access to a growing number of agricultural information services both through SMS and voice. In short, they make it easier to share locally relevant information on improved techniques and to provide time-specific information and recommendations such as weather forecasts etc.
In addition to mobile phone services, a low-cost video equipment to create locally made extension videos to share the stories of farmers who have made the change to more sustainable practices with their peers in other communities. And not to be outdone, by coupling mobile phone access with radio access, interactive radio programs can be developed where farmers can ask their doubts and concerns to an expert having relevant information. This will lead to two way flow of information and at the same time better assimilation and use of information provided. Government has taken some steps in this direction and is broadcasting programs in rural areas. Also doordarshan shows programs such as Krishi Darshan where information related to new technologies, seeds, irrigation techniques are shown.
Also since penetration of computer and internet is also increasing in rural area it is opening a completely new dimension of information flow. Private sector can also be involved now to provide IT solutions and software. This area seems to be most promising as many facilities can be used like audio video conferencing, instant search on internet , fast access of information etc. With development of new software and applications it will be easy also to operate and handle them. This will also provide employment opportunities to youth.
A successful initiative by private sector known as e-Choupal can be mentioned here. It is a business platform consisting of a set of organizational subsystems and interfaces connecting farmers to global markets. This common structure can be used to provide products and services for farmers as producer as well as consumer. The e-Choupal business consists of:
* The infrastructure (physical or organizational) through which transaction takes place.
* The entity (person or organization) making the transaction.
* The geographical coverage.
One e-choupal serves a cluster of five villages. This e-choupal provides free information and knowledge which ensures wide participation by the farmer. The entity which provides the facility create revenue through transactions on commission basis.
Of course, the potential impact of ICT on its own is not enough to overcome the very real climate and food security challenges that our country and in fact world faces over the next several decades. It is important to remember that while the technologies can be used to support the transition to more sustainable agricultural practices, they still require someone to create high quality and relevant content, and someone to pay for the dissemination of that information. However, there is cause for optimism that just as technology has enabled the rapid spread of entertainment, it may also facilitate a faster transition to environmentally friendlier forms of agriculture in the parts of the world that need them most. And while that alone wont solve the problem, it is certainly a helpful start.
References:1. http://www.e-agriculture.org/blog/how-ict-helping-farmers-and-combatting-climate-change
2. Indian Economy by Ramesh Singh
Name: Ayush Rai
Greenhouse gases from agriculture account forover ten percentof total emissions globally, roughly equivalent to the entire global transport sector. Meanwhile, it is estimated that agricultural production will need to increase by about 70% by 2050 to keep pace with global population growth. Whats more, the real impacts of climate change on the agricultural sector are likely going to be hardest felt in many of those countries whose people rely on agriculture most for their livelihoods. In sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, for example, some estimates show areduction in the productivityof most major food crops as a result of changes to the climate over the next forty years.
The increasing availability of affordable technologies that have the potential to reduce greenhouse gases and increase productivity in agriculture. Information and communications technologies, like the mobile phone, video, and even radio. Asmobile phone penetration ratescontinue to grow at a rapid rate throughout the globe, farmers now have access to a growing number of agricultural information services both through SMS and voice. In short, they make it easier to share locally relevant information on improved techniques and to provide time-specific information and recommendations such as weather forecasts etc.
In addition to mobile phone services, a low-cost video equipment to create locally made extension videos to share the stories of farmers who have made the change to more sustainable practices with their peers in other communities. And not to be outdone, by coupling mobile phone access with radio access, interactive radio programs can be developed where farmers can ask their doubts and concerns to an expert having relevant information. This will lead to two way flow of information and at the same time better assimilation and use of information provided. Government has taken some steps in this direction and is broadcasting programs in rural areas. Also doordarshan shows programs such as Krishi Darshan where information related to new technologies, seeds, irrigation techniques are shown.
Also since penetration of computer and internet is also increasing in rural area it is opening a completely new dimension of information flow. Private sector can also be involved now to provide IT solutions and software. This area seems to be most promising as many facilities can be used like audio video conferencing, instant search on internet , fast access of information etc. With development of new software and applications it will be easy also to operate and handle them. This will also provide employment opportunities to youth.
A successful initiative by private sector known as e-Choupal can be mentioned here. It is a business platform consisting of a set of organizational subsystems and interfaces connecting farmers to global markets. This common structure can be used to provide products and services for farmers as producer as well as consumer. The e-Choupal business consists of:
* The infrastructure (physical or organizational) through which transaction takes place.
* The entity (person or organization) making the transaction.
* The geographical coverage.
One e-choupal serves a cluster of five villages. This e-choupal provides free information and knowledge which ensures wide participation by the farmer. The entity which provides the facility create revenue through transactions on commission basis.
Of course, the potential impact of ICT on its own is not enough to overcome the very real climate and food security challenges that our country and in fact world faces over the next several decades. It is important to remember that while the technologies can be used to support the transition to more sustainable agricultural practices, they still require someone to create high quality and relevant content, and someone to pay for the dissemination of that information. However, there is cause for optimism that just as technology has enabled the rapid spread of entertainment, it may also facilitate a faster transition to environmentally friendlier forms of agriculture in the parts of the world that need them most. And while that alone wont solve the problem, it is certainly a helpful start.
References:1. http://www.e-agriculture.org/blog/how-ict-helping-farmers-and-combatting-climate-change
2. Indian Economy by Ramesh Singh
Name: Ayush Rai
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