IOA-AC summit 2013
The council of Ministers of the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IOR-AC) was held in Perth (Australia) on November 1, 2013. The meeting expressed the strategic role which the countries of Indian Ocean have to undertake in the coming future. At this meeting Australia took over as chair of association from India and Indonesia became the vice chair. The old name was replaced as Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) charting out new development in cooperation.
Role of Indian Ocean at strategic level
It covers 20 percent of water and appropriately has a population of 2.6 billion. The container traffic which it carries is 50 percent of total. Again it carries the following features
1. It has 39 percent of world population
2. It handles 30 percent of world trade
3. Around 66 percentage of seaborne trade is done that way
4. 55 percentage of oil reserve
5. 40 percentage of gas reserve
6. Tuna fisheries in Indian ocean produce one third of the worlds tuna
These features correctly articulate the remarkable diversity of Indian Ocean
IORA: Significance and Impact
Consisting 20 members it reflects the diversity of Indian Ocean region. From small countries like Comoros it gets its reach to G 20 countries like Australia and India. However it expresses the common bond among these regions. Surely it will make a genuine contribution towards a peaceful and sustainable development of the region.
Priority Areas
At Banglore in 2011, the association was defined six priority areas: they are:
1. Maritime security
2. Trade and investment
3. Fisheries management
4. Disaster preparedness
5. Academic cooperation
6. Tourism exchange
Recent meeting set out broad based agendas based on these priority areas.
Common challenges
The countries share common challenges in almost same area. Keeping the shipping lines open, tackling disasters, promoting education and tourism, utilizing the increasing population are the main concern of almost all countries. Another common challenge is related with piracy
Piracy
World Bank estimates that the piracy costs the global economy around 18 billion us dollar. So the member countries realize the crucial role of taking counter piracy efforts. Natural disaster like 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami is the other major concern.
Womens Empowerment
It will do their best possible way to assure the best level of education for their women population. They defined the empowerment of girls as a high priority area.
Perth Principles
With 20 member countries there is six dialogue partners in IORA. They all support the principles for Peaceful, productive and sustainable use of the Ocean and its resources. The principles recognize the importance contribution of member countries in eradicating poverty, creating livelihood for deprived, sustain food security and maintaining economic growth.
by Shahid T Komath
Showing posts with label Australia. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Australia. Show all posts
Monday, January 13, 2014
Immigration and Emigration policies
Immigration and Emigration policies
This is a history of immigration policy in Britain, Canada, Australia, US and EU (focusing on Indians) + Overview of Indias emigration policy.
Britain: Evolution of restrictive Immigration Policies
The Second World War marks a crucial watershed in the history of the 'formation of Indian diaspora, particularly in the developed world. The largest number of Indian migrants in this period went to the UK. Why?
* experiences of war, partition and independence provided the initial motivation for the postwar exodus
* nexus of kinship and friendship enabled many to tap the economic opportunities that were becoming available more and more in the labour markets abroad.
Lifting of restriction in the New World and Antipodes
Prior to the-Second World War- anti-Asian sentiment was the characteristic of immigration policy in North America, Canada and Australia.
Canada:
* An Order of 1947 allowed landing for non-immigrants who had served in the Armed Forces and were honourably discharged, provided they were not persons of Asiatic origin.
* After the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru visited Canada, Indo-Canadians were granted the right to vote.
* The explicitly racist provisions in the lmmigration Act were changed, lest Canada's image abroad as a humane and peace-loving country got tarnished.
* In 1962, new regulations to the Act were introduced, prohibiting the use of race, colour, and national origin as criteria for the selection of immigrants.
* It facilitated increasing immigration of the skilled, educated and qualified Indians.
Australia: too gave up its 'white Australian policy' in the 1960s, attracting talent of the non-white Indians
US:
* lndian immigration was mainly characterized by the presence of illiterate labourers- those working on the Pacific coast lumber mills, docks etc.
* a few educated Indians too, who were political refugees or students. For example, amongst the students who were organizing lndians against the British rule in lndia were the son of the Maharaja of Baroda at Harvard and the son of Rabindranath Tagore at Illinois. In fact, Tagore had himself visited the U.S. and praised America for its international leadership. But he later denounced the Asian exclusions and refused to return to the US because of 'utter lack of freedom' there.
* After WWII, things changed. Roosevelt himself, as President of the US, said, 'Statutory discrimination against lndians now serves no useful purpose and [is] incongruous and inconsistent with the dignity of both our peoples'.
* 1946 US lmmigration Act- which ended almost 30 years of exclusion of lndians by setting an annual number of 100 as their national quota. [for Chinese, barriers lifted in 1943]
* Objective: to ameliorate the growing antagonism of lndians towards American troops that were still stationed in lndia after the War had ended.
* Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru visited US in October 1949- lndian immigration changed from unskilled workers to highly skilled and the professional Indians.
* In the three decades that followed, lndians acquired the status of being amongst the highest-educated, highly-professional and highest-earning model minority ethnic groups in the US.
The umbilical cord of colonial legacy that lndians had long nurtured with Britain was thus eventually snapped, first when Canada and subsequently the US in the 'New World' became the final destination of the migrating lndian professional masses through the 1960s and 1970s, there being a scramble for them amongst the other developed countries, ironically including the Great Britain too. The largely unskilled and semiskilled migrants too found a new destination in the newly developing oil-rich countries of the gulf in West Asia, and a large number of lndians went there as temporary construction workers, followed by some professionals as well.
EU:
TCNs= Third Country Nationals= workers from outside the Union
1999- Amsterdam Treaty promised to promote the free-movement and employment rights of TCNs.
-centralized European institutions (like European Commission and the Council of Ministers) were given clear mandate to enact policies directly affecting the migration of non-EU nationals
-The treaty extended the TEC anti-discrimination clause to encompass all forms of discrimination on account of racial or ethnic origin, religion, age, sex, disability, or sexual orientation.
However, despite such treaties, harmonization and homogenization of immigration policies affecting the entry and stay of TCNs across countries of the EU are yet to take place, although many countries like Germany, France, Denmark, and the Netherlands etc. are already in the fray to attract Indian talent.
Emigration policy in India
Sending countries like lndia have from time to time adopted policies designed to counter the exploitation of their citizens abroad and/or the draining of their valuable human resources that takes place through growing emigration.
These can be grouped into four broad issue based policy types:
Restrictive (to restrict emigration), compensatory(to compensate for the loss due to emigration), restorative (to encourage reverse migration) and developmental(bridging the development gap between the developing home country and the developed destination country)
Conclusion:
* No well-defined immigration rule or law per se in India, either for the skilled or the unskilled.
* the Overseas lndian Citizenship (OIC) =the dual citizenship conferred to the lndian diaspora by the lndian government in 2006 is an important landmark in redefining the contours of immigration policy in the new millennium - not merely for lndia but for an "interconnected' world as well.
* For the lndian diaspora in the Gulf - those who send large remittances back home but can never hope to become naturalized citizens of those countries because of restrictive regimes there, the lndian government announced at the fourth Pravasi Bhartiya Divas which took place in 2006 that their demand for voting rights to be exercised from abroad was under serious consideration
UN Report of the Global Commission on lnternational Migration 2005: concluded
* The international community has failed to capitalize on the opportunities and meet the challenges associated with migration and therefore new approaches are required to correct the situation
* if the bendits of international migration are to be maximized and its adverse consequences minimized, then migration policies should be based On shared objectives
* the traditional distinction between skilled and unskilled workers is in certain respects an unhelpful one, as it fails to do justice to the complexity of international migration. While they may have different levels of educational achievement, all of them could be legitimately described as essential workers
References:
IGNOU notes
Wikipedia
Name: Sweety Gupta
This is a history of immigration policy in Britain, Canada, Australia, US and EU (focusing on Indians) + Overview of Indias emigration policy.
Britain: Evolution of restrictive Immigration Policies
The Second World War marks a crucial watershed in the history of the 'formation of Indian diaspora, particularly in the developed world. The largest number of Indian migrants in this period went to the UK. Why?
* experiences of war, partition and independence provided the initial motivation for the postwar exodus
* nexus of kinship and friendship enabled many to tap the economic opportunities that were becoming available more and more in the labour markets abroad.
Lifting of restriction in the New World and Antipodes
Prior to the-Second World War- anti-Asian sentiment was the characteristic of immigration policy in North America, Canada and Australia.
Canada:
* An Order of 1947 allowed landing for non-immigrants who had served in the Armed Forces and were honourably discharged, provided they were not persons of Asiatic origin.
* After the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru visited Canada, Indo-Canadians were granted the right to vote.
* The explicitly racist provisions in the lmmigration Act were changed, lest Canada's image abroad as a humane and peace-loving country got tarnished.
* In 1962, new regulations to the Act were introduced, prohibiting the use of race, colour, and national origin as criteria for the selection of immigrants.
* It facilitated increasing immigration of the skilled, educated and qualified Indians.
Australia: too gave up its 'white Australian policy' in the 1960s, attracting talent of the non-white Indians
US:
* lndian immigration was mainly characterized by the presence of illiterate labourers- those working on the Pacific coast lumber mills, docks etc.
* a few educated Indians too, who were political refugees or students. For example, amongst the students who were organizing lndians against the British rule in lndia were the son of the Maharaja of Baroda at Harvard and the son of Rabindranath Tagore at Illinois. In fact, Tagore had himself visited the U.S. and praised America for its international leadership. But he later denounced the Asian exclusions and refused to return to the US because of 'utter lack of freedom' there.
* After WWII, things changed. Roosevelt himself, as President of the US, said, 'Statutory discrimination against lndians now serves no useful purpose and [is] incongruous and inconsistent with the dignity of both our peoples'.
* 1946 US lmmigration Act- which ended almost 30 years of exclusion of lndians by setting an annual number of 100 as their national quota. [for Chinese, barriers lifted in 1943]
* Objective: to ameliorate the growing antagonism of lndians towards American troops that were still stationed in lndia after the War had ended.
* Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru visited US in October 1949- lndian immigration changed from unskilled workers to highly skilled and the professional Indians.
* In the three decades that followed, lndians acquired the status of being amongst the highest-educated, highly-professional and highest-earning model minority ethnic groups in the US.
The umbilical cord of colonial legacy that lndians had long nurtured with Britain was thus eventually snapped, first when Canada and subsequently the US in the 'New World' became the final destination of the migrating lndian professional masses through the 1960s and 1970s, there being a scramble for them amongst the other developed countries, ironically including the Great Britain too. The largely unskilled and semiskilled migrants too found a new destination in the newly developing oil-rich countries of the gulf in West Asia, and a large number of lndians went there as temporary construction workers, followed by some professionals as well.
EU:
TCNs= Third Country Nationals= workers from outside the Union
1999- Amsterdam Treaty promised to promote the free-movement and employment rights of TCNs.
-centralized European institutions (like European Commission and the Council of Ministers) were given clear mandate to enact policies directly affecting the migration of non-EU nationals
-The treaty extended the TEC anti-discrimination clause to encompass all forms of discrimination on account of racial or ethnic origin, religion, age, sex, disability, or sexual orientation.
However, despite such treaties, harmonization and homogenization of immigration policies affecting the entry and stay of TCNs across countries of the EU are yet to take place, although many countries like Germany, France, Denmark, and the Netherlands etc. are already in the fray to attract Indian talent.
Emigration policy in India
Sending countries like lndia have from time to time adopted policies designed to counter the exploitation of their citizens abroad and/or the draining of their valuable human resources that takes place through growing emigration.
These can be grouped into four broad issue based policy types:
Restrictive (to restrict emigration), compensatory(to compensate for the loss due to emigration), restorative (to encourage reverse migration) and developmental(bridging the development gap between the developing home country and the developed destination country)
Conclusion:
* No well-defined immigration rule or law per se in India, either for the skilled or the unskilled.
* the Overseas lndian Citizenship (OIC) =the dual citizenship conferred to the lndian diaspora by the lndian government in 2006 is an important landmark in redefining the contours of immigration policy in the new millennium - not merely for lndia but for an "interconnected' world as well.
* For the lndian diaspora in the Gulf - those who send large remittances back home but can never hope to become naturalized citizens of those countries because of restrictive regimes there, the lndian government announced at the fourth Pravasi Bhartiya Divas which took place in 2006 that their demand for voting rights to be exercised from abroad was under serious consideration
UN Report of the Global Commission on lnternational Migration 2005: concluded
* The international community has failed to capitalize on the opportunities and meet the challenges associated with migration and therefore new approaches are required to correct the situation
* if the bendits of international migration are to be maximized and its adverse consequences minimized, then migration policies should be based On shared objectives
* the traditional distinction between skilled and unskilled workers is in certain respects an unhelpful one, as it fails to do justice to the complexity of international migration. While they may have different levels of educational achievement, all of them could be legitimately described as essential workers
References:
IGNOU notes
Wikipedia
Name: Sweety Gupta
Geography (Biosphere, Ecosystem and Biomes of the world)
1. Prologue
2. Biosphere
3. Biotic Regions
4. Ecology and ecosystem
5. List of Biomes (Tundra in detail)
Note This article comes under the salient features of Worlds physical geography and some portions of Ecology.
Biosphere
Before getting into detail in Biosphere, a quick glance on the Types of sphere of the earth. The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four inter-connected "geo-spheres:" the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. Scientists can classify life and material on or near the surface of the earth to be in any of these four spheres.
The names of the four spheres are derived from the Greek words for stone (litho), air (atmo), water (hydro), and life (bio).
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals. It covers the entire surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of the Mariana Trench.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near the earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air. Ninety-seven(97) percent of the earth's water is in the oceans. The remaining three percent is fresh water; three-quarters of the fresh water is solid and exists in ice sheets
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet. Most of our atmosphere is located close to the earth's surface where it is most dense. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen and just under 21% oxygen; the small amount remaining is composed of carbon dioxide and other gasses.
All four spheres can be and often are present in a single location. For example, a piece of soil will of course have mineral material from the lithosphere. Additionally, there will be elements of the hydrosphere present as moisture within the soil, the biosphere as insects and plants, and even the atmosphere as pockets of air b
Life Affects the LandscapeThe life forms that make up the biosphere do more than just live on Earth. They also interact with it and are responsible for making great changes in the way that the Earth has evolved.
Consider the atmosphere. Our atmosphere is comprised of approximately 21% oxygen. Where did that oxygen come from?
The early Earth did not have very much oxygen in the air. Most of it had been trapped by the seas, and locked up in the rocks and soil. Slowly over millions of years, plants released oxygen into the air, greatly increasing its abundance, and making animal life possible.
So now with the idea of the other three sphere I feel it is easy to determine what a biosphere is?
Biosphere
The biosphere is defined as the sphere or area around the planet Earth where life exists. This zone of life is vast.
Most life forms live on or near the surface of Earth. However, some live deep within the hydrosphere (oceans, lakes and streams), while others thrive in the depths of the lithosphere (solid portion of Earth).
Biosphere is the largest part of ecosystem (But whats ecosystem?)
Ecology
It is the scientific study of the inter relationship among organism, between organism and all aspect living and non-living of the environment. The branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings. Ernst Haeckel is usually given the credit for coining the word ecology in 1866
Ecosystem
The plants and animals that are found in a particular location are referred to as an ecosystem. These plants and animals depend on each other to survive. In a delicate balance, these life forms help to sustain one another in regular patterns. Disruptions to an ecosystem can be disastrous to all. Organisms within the ecosystem (And most of the disruptions done by mankind( word mankind used sarcastically).
Ecosystem is a term used by A G Tensely in 1935, to describe a discrete unit that consists of living & non-living parts, interacting to form a stable system
NOTE The diagram for this is given below
Community The term is applied to any grouping of population of different organisms found living together in a particular environment
Population - A group of organism all of the same species, which occupies a particular area
EcoSystem in Semi-detail form (This is self explanatory just refer the diagram below)
Plants and animals depend on each other to survive. This connection of living things to each other is called biodiversity.
An ecosystem, short for 'ecological system', includes all the living organisms existing together in a particular area. These plants and animals within an area interact with each other and with the non-living elements of the area, such as climate, water, soil and so on.
An ecosystem can be very small, such as a puddle or an area under a large rock, or it can be vast, such as an ocean.
The balance of an ecosystem is delicate, and a disruption such as the introduction of a new element can damage it.
Micro: A small scale ecosystem such as a pond, puddle, tree trunk, under a rock etc. Messo: A medium scale ecosystem such as a forest or a large lake
Biome:(Explained below)
Just a small point I am adding here
Function in an ecosystem is of two types
1. Flow of Matter(cyclic) 2) Energy(suns energy uni-directional )
Energy uni-directional means the energy given by sun to us is not taken back.
Biomes
A very large ecosystem or collection of ecosystems with similar biotic and abiotic factors such as an entire Rain forest with millions of animals and trees, with many different water bodies running through them.
Ecosystem boundaries are not marked(separated) by rigid lines. They are often separated by geographical barriers such as deserts, mountains, oceans, lakes and rivers. As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other.
This is why a lake can have many small ecosystems with their own unique characteristics. Scientists call this blending ecotone(explained in brief)
Ecosystems can be put into 2 groups. If the ecosystem exists in a water body, like an ocean, freshwater or puddle, it is called an aquatic ecosystem. Those that exist outside of water bodies are called terrestrial ecosystems.
Listing of Biomes
Three important regions of the earth
1) Tropical zone
2) Temperate zone
3) Frigid zone
Note very important diagram for the whole explanation of Biomes (Only for starters like me.) Figure 1
I am listing the biomes one after another will explain the most important ones in terms of exam
1) Forest
2) Grasslands
3) Desert Biome
4) Chaparral/Mediterranean Biome
5) Tundra Biome
Forest
Forest Biome divided into two types of biome
1. Tropical Forest
2. Temperate Forest (Refer above fig)
(a)Tropical Forest again divided into two types
(i) Tropical Rain Forest (TRF)/Tropical Evergreen Forest (They are also called Selvas) Most nutrients in the tree in TRF and not in the soil.
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forest/Tropical Monsoon Forest (TMF)
Location: Near the equator in Central and South America, parts of Africa and Asia. Characteristics: Hot, humid with equatorial climate and biggest biodiversity. Almost half of the worlds species (plants and animals) live there. The trees are mostly hardwood.
Note Difference between Evergreen vegetation and Deciduous Forest
Deciduous = A term referring to the ability of some plants to lose their leaves annually. In TMF the trees shed their leaves during the dry summer months (March - May)
In the temperate zone the deciduous tree shed their trees during autumn
Evergreen trees = is one which retains its leaves throughout the year it does shed its leaves but not completely at any time of the year
(b) Temperate Forest again divided into two parts
(i) Temperate deciduous Forest West European type (Hard-Wood type)
(ii)Temperate Coniferous forest Soft-Wood type (In Russia it is called Taiga)
Grasslands
(i)Tropical Grassland (Nothing but combination of Grass + Scattered trees). Tropical grasslands are tall, thick rough, coarse & lack nutrients
Savannah/TropicalGrasslands:Location: Central Africa (Kenya, Zambia, Tanzania), northern Australia and central South America(Venezuela/Brazil).Characteristics: Hot and dry, mainly grass, scrub and occasional trees. This biome has two distinct seasons a dry season and a rainy season. During the dry season the vegetation dies and re-appears rapidly during the rainy season.
(ii)Temperate Grassland
Here the grasses are short + soft + nutritious
Location: Mainly found in the Pustaz in Hungary, the Veldt in South Africa, the Pampas in Argentina and the Prairies in the USA.Characteristics: Many grass and trees with little large bushes. Climates are temperate continental with mild weather and moderate rainfall.
Different regional names for grasslands
Praries in North America
Pamper in Argentina
Campos in Brazil
Lamos in Venezuela
Pustaz in Hungry
Steppes in Russia
Velds in South Africa
Downs in Australia
Tundra Biome
Tundra biome is naturally speaking the most fragile biome as it lacks diversity. The tundra is near the North Pole. Winters are very cold. Summers last for a very short time.
Under the soil (Permafrost soil explained below) the earth is frozen and never melts.
About 1/5 of the Earth is tundra. Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes. The word comes from a Finnish word and means 'treeless plain'. There is arctic tundra and alpine tundra. But in Russian Language is means Marshy Region
Permafrost Soil Permafrost(Permanently frozen) a layer of permanently frozen ground in areas where temperatures are too low to permit complete thawing(ice becoming liquid or soft as a result of warming up). Permafrost underlies most of the tundra regions
Talik is an area of unfrozen ground surrounded by permafrost.
Permafrost generally begins at a depth less than a meter from the surface.(Here active layer is the surface). When the upper Ice Cover melts during summer the sub-soil still remains frozen & the result is wetlands throughout the region.
Tundra has areas lying roughly beyond 65 Degrees North. These areas are very cold & have annual rainfall less than or equal to 25 cm (mostly in summer). Tundra is the most continuous of all biomes as it occurs unbroken along the margins of northern continents
Summer isotherm of 10 degrees marks the beginning & 0 degrees marks the limit on the pole wards side Winters are very long(9-10 months) with very severe temperature(-35 to -40 degrees). In summer season, because of the long day length & continuous insolation but the suns rays are very inclined so that theres very diffused heating.
Regions under tundra biomes
1. Iceland
2. Green Land
3. Alaska
4. Siberia
5. Northern most parts of Canada
6. Northern Scandinavian parts
Ecotone
Note Rarely the boundaries between 2 adjacent or neighboring biomes are discrete or distinct, instead they blend with the neighboring biomes through a transitions zone known as ecotone. This transition zone has high species diversity & density as compared to any of the neighboring Biomes.
Ecotone arises naturally for e.g.
Ecotone may also reflect human intervention for e.g. the agricultural clearance of formerly forested areas.
Bush trees - Tundra
A similar Ecotone is built between Southern Part of tundra and temperate coniferous forest (Temperate zone) (Refer figure 1). It consists of short height trees E.g. Alders and Junipers
Grass Tundra
Next to bush tundra there is grass tundra it consists of e.g. mosses, lichens and Rhododendrons (small plants with multicolored flowers)
Note (The vegetation is well adopted to withstand extreme cold & to survive on a minimum moisture. It can also remain alive beneath the snow in winter)
Chaparral/Mediterranean Biomes
The chaparral biome is found in small sections of most continents, including the west coast of the United States, the west coast of South America, the Cape Town area of South Africa, the western tip of Australia and the coastal areas of the Mediterranean.
The chaparral is characterized as being very hot and dry. The winter is very mild and is usually about 50F (10C). Most of the rain in this biome comes in the winter. The summer is hot and dry at up to 100F (37.5C). This makes fires and droughts very common.
Desert Biome
A desert is a place that gets just a bit of rain every year. Some deserts get almost no rain at all. A desert can be very hot in daytime and cold at night.Some deserts are cold all the time. A desert is a dry area where less than 50 cm of rain falls each year. About one fifth of the Earth's surface is desert.
Deserts can be hot or cold. The Australian Desert is one example of a hot desert, and the Gobi Desert in Mongolia is an example of a cold desert. Antarctica is the world's largest desert.
The Atacama Desert of Chile and the Sahara Desert in Africa receive less than 1.5 cm a year, if at all.
Although rain doesn't fall very often in deserts, sometimes not for years, there can be sudden, heavy rains that cause flooding.
Deserts can be found along coastlines, such as the Atacama Desert, or in the interior of continents, such as the Great Basin Desert of North America.
Note A desert biome represents the adaptations of the life most admirably.
And this you can make out by just reading the facts mentioned above.
By Arun Chettiar
References -
1. G C Leong Book (Comprehensively explained)
2. www.google.com
3. Atlas Map
2. Biosphere
3. Biotic Regions
4. Ecology and ecosystem
5. List of Biomes (Tundra in detail)
Note This article comes under the salient features of Worlds physical geography and some portions of Ecology.
Biosphere
Before getting into detail in Biosphere, a quick glance on the Types of sphere of the earth. The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four inter-connected "geo-spheres:" the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. Scientists can classify life and material on or near the surface of the earth to be in any of these four spheres.
The names of the four spheres are derived from the Greek words for stone (litho), air (atmo), water (hydro), and life (bio).
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals. It covers the entire surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of the Mariana Trench.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near the earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air. Ninety-seven(97) percent of the earth's water is in the oceans. The remaining three percent is fresh water; three-quarters of the fresh water is solid and exists in ice sheets
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet. Most of our atmosphere is located close to the earth's surface where it is most dense. The air of our planet is 79% nitrogen and just under 21% oxygen; the small amount remaining is composed of carbon dioxide and other gasses.
All four spheres can be and often are present in a single location. For example, a piece of soil will of course have mineral material from the lithosphere. Additionally, there will be elements of the hydrosphere present as moisture within the soil, the biosphere as insects and plants, and even the atmosphere as pockets of air b
Life Affects the LandscapeThe life forms that make up the biosphere do more than just live on Earth. They also interact with it and are responsible for making great changes in the way that the Earth has evolved.
Consider the atmosphere. Our atmosphere is comprised of approximately 21% oxygen. Where did that oxygen come from?
The early Earth did not have very much oxygen in the air. Most of it had been trapped by the seas, and locked up in the rocks and soil. Slowly over millions of years, plants released oxygen into the air, greatly increasing its abundance, and making animal life possible.
So now with the idea of the other three sphere I feel it is easy to determine what a biosphere is?
Biosphere
The biosphere is defined as the sphere or area around the planet Earth where life exists. This zone of life is vast.
Most life forms live on or near the surface of Earth. However, some live deep within the hydrosphere (oceans, lakes and streams), while others thrive in the depths of the lithosphere (solid portion of Earth).
Biosphere is the largest part of ecosystem (But whats ecosystem?)
Ecology
It is the scientific study of the inter relationship among organism, between organism and all aspect living and non-living of the environment. The branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings. Ernst Haeckel is usually given the credit for coining the word ecology in 1866
Ecosystem
The plants and animals that are found in a particular location are referred to as an ecosystem. These plants and animals depend on each other to survive. In a delicate balance, these life forms help to sustain one another in regular patterns. Disruptions to an ecosystem can be disastrous to all. Organisms within the ecosystem (And most of the disruptions done by mankind( word mankind used sarcastically).
Ecosystem is a term used by A G Tensely in 1935, to describe a discrete unit that consists of living & non-living parts, interacting to form a stable system
NOTE The diagram for this is given below
Community The term is applied to any grouping of population of different organisms found living together in a particular environment
Population - A group of organism all of the same species, which occupies a particular area
EcoSystem in Semi-detail form (This is self explanatory just refer the diagram below)
Plants and animals depend on each other to survive. This connection of living things to each other is called biodiversity.
An ecosystem, short for 'ecological system', includes all the living organisms existing together in a particular area. These plants and animals within an area interact with each other and with the non-living elements of the area, such as climate, water, soil and so on.
An ecosystem can be very small, such as a puddle or an area under a large rock, or it can be vast, such as an ocean.
The balance of an ecosystem is delicate, and a disruption such as the introduction of a new element can damage it.
Micro: A small scale ecosystem such as a pond, puddle, tree trunk, under a rock etc. Messo: A medium scale ecosystem such as a forest or a large lake
Biome:(Explained below)
Just a small point I am adding here
Function in an ecosystem is of two types
1. Flow of Matter(cyclic) 2) Energy(suns energy uni-directional )
Energy uni-directional means the energy given by sun to us is not taken back.
Biomes
A very large ecosystem or collection of ecosystems with similar biotic and abiotic factors such as an entire Rain forest with millions of animals and trees, with many different water bodies running through them.
Ecosystem boundaries are not marked(separated) by rigid lines. They are often separated by geographical barriers such as deserts, mountains, oceans, lakes and rivers. As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other.
This is why a lake can have many small ecosystems with their own unique characteristics. Scientists call this blending ecotone(explained in brief)
Ecosystems can be put into 2 groups. If the ecosystem exists in a water body, like an ocean, freshwater or puddle, it is called an aquatic ecosystem. Those that exist outside of water bodies are called terrestrial ecosystems.
Listing of Biomes
Three important regions of the earth
1) Tropical zone
2) Temperate zone
3) Frigid zone
Note very important diagram for the whole explanation of Biomes (Only for starters like me.) Figure 1
I am listing the biomes one after another will explain the most important ones in terms of exam
1) Forest
2) Grasslands
3) Desert Biome
4) Chaparral/Mediterranean Biome
5) Tundra Biome
Forest
Forest Biome divided into two types of biome
1. Tropical Forest
2. Temperate Forest (Refer above fig)
(a)Tropical Forest again divided into two types
(i) Tropical Rain Forest (TRF)/Tropical Evergreen Forest (They are also called Selvas) Most nutrients in the tree in TRF and not in the soil.
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forest/Tropical Monsoon Forest (TMF)
Location: Near the equator in Central and South America, parts of Africa and Asia. Characteristics: Hot, humid with equatorial climate and biggest biodiversity. Almost half of the worlds species (plants and animals) live there. The trees are mostly hardwood.
Note Difference between Evergreen vegetation and Deciduous Forest
Deciduous = A term referring to the ability of some plants to lose their leaves annually. In TMF the trees shed their leaves during the dry summer months (March - May)
In the temperate zone the deciduous tree shed their trees during autumn
Evergreen trees = is one which retains its leaves throughout the year it does shed its leaves but not completely at any time of the year
(b) Temperate Forest again divided into two parts
(i) Temperate deciduous Forest West European type (Hard-Wood type)
(ii)Temperate Coniferous forest Soft-Wood type (In Russia it is called Taiga)
Grasslands
(i)Tropical Grassland (Nothing but combination of Grass + Scattered trees). Tropical grasslands are tall, thick rough, coarse & lack nutrients
Savannah/TropicalGrasslands:Location: Central Africa (Kenya, Zambia, Tanzania), northern Australia and central South America(Venezuela/Brazil).Characteristics: Hot and dry, mainly grass, scrub and occasional trees. This biome has two distinct seasons a dry season and a rainy season. During the dry season the vegetation dies and re-appears rapidly during the rainy season.
(ii)Temperate Grassland
Here the grasses are short + soft + nutritious
Location: Mainly found in the Pustaz in Hungary, the Veldt in South Africa, the Pampas in Argentina and the Prairies in the USA.Characteristics: Many grass and trees with little large bushes. Climates are temperate continental with mild weather and moderate rainfall.
Different regional names for grasslands
Praries in North America
Pamper in Argentina
Campos in Brazil
Lamos in Venezuela
Pustaz in Hungry
Steppes in Russia
Velds in South Africa
Downs in Australia
Tundra Biome
Tundra biome is naturally speaking the most fragile biome as it lacks diversity. The tundra is near the North Pole. Winters are very cold. Summers last for a very short time.
Under the soil (Permafrost soil explained below) the earth is frozen and never melts.
About 1/5 of the Earth is tundra. Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes. The word comes from a Finnish word and means 'treeless plain'. There is arctic tundra and alpine tundra. But in Russian Language is means Marshy Region
Permafrost Soil Permafrost(Permanently frozen) a layer of permanently frozen ground in areas where temperatures are too low to permit complete thawing(ice becoming liquid or soft as a result of warming up). Permafrost underlies most of the tundra regions
Talik is an area of unfrozen ground surrounded by permafrost.
Permafrost generally begins at a depth less than a meter from the surface.(Here active layer is the surface). When the upper Ice Cover melts during summer the sub-soil still remains frozen & the result is wetlands throughout the region.
Tundra has areas lying roughly beyond 65 Degrees North. These areas are very cold & have annual rainfall less than or equal to 25 cm (mostly in summer). Tundra is the most continuous of all biomes as it occurs unbroken along the margins of northern continents
Summer isotherm of 10 degrees marks the beginning & 0 degrees marks the limit on the pole wards side Winters are very long(9-10 months) with very severe temperature(-35 to -40 degrees). In summer season, because of the long day length & continuous insolation but the suns rays are very inclined so that theres very diffused heating.
Regions under tundra biomes
1. Iceland
2. Green Land
3. Alaska
4. Siberia
5. Northern most parts of Canada
6. Northern Scandinavian parts
Ecotone
Note Rarely the boundaries between 2 adjacent or neighboring biomes are discrete or distinct, instead they blend with the neighboring biomes through a transitions zone known as ecotone. This transition zone has high species diversity & density as compared to any of the neighboring Biomes.
Ecotone arises naturally for e.g.
Ecotone may also reflect human intervention for e.g. the agricultural clearance of formerly forested areas.
Bush trees - Tundra
A similar Ecotone is built between Southern Part of tundra and temperate coniferous forest (Temperate zone) (Refer figure 1). It consists of short height trees E.g. Alders and Junipers
Grass Tundra
Next to bush tundra there is grass tundra it consists of e.g. mosses, lichens and Rhododendrons (small plants with multicolored flowers)
Note (The vegetation is well adopted to withstand extreme cold & to survive on a minimum moisture. It can also remain alive beneath the snow in winter)
Chaparral/Mediterranean Biomes
The chaparral biome is found in small sections of most continents, including the west coast of the United States, the west coast of South America, the Cape Town area of South Africa, the western tip of Australia and the coastal areas of the Mediterranean.
The chaparral is characterized as being very hot and dry. The winter is very mild and is usually about 50F (10C). Most of the rain in this biome comes in the winter. The summer is hot and dry at up to 100F (37.5C). This makes fires and droughts very common.
Desert Biome
A desert is a place that gets just a bit of rain every year. Some deserts get almost no rain at all. A desert can be very hot in daytime and cold at night.Some deserts are cold all the time. A desert is a dry area where less than 50 cm of rain falls each year. About one fifth of the Earth's surface is desert.
Deserts can be hot or cold. The Australian Desert is one example of a hot desert, and the Gobi Desert in Mongolia is an example of a cold desert. Antarctica is the world's largest desert.
The Atacama Desert of Chile and the Sahara Desert in Africa receive less than 1.5 cm a year, if at all.
Although rain doesn't fall very often in deserts, sometimes not for years, there can be sudden, heavy rains that cause flooding.
Deserts can be found along coastlines, such as the Atacama Desert, or in the interior of continents, such as the Great Basin Desert of North America.
Note A desert biome represents the adaptations of the life most admirably.
And this you can make out by just reading the facts mentioned above.
By Arun Chettiar
References -
1. G C Leong Book (Comprehensively explained)
2. www.google.com
3. Atlas Map
GS 2: Distribution of key natural resources across world (including
GS 2: Distribution of key natural resources across world (including South Asia and Indian)
Prologue: Collect information from misc sources, can't mention all of them here. I just collect them in this single article. I am not saying that this information is sufficient, but I hope it will helpful.
Lets start with small introduction :
What are natural resources?
-material and component formed within environment
or. any matter or energy derived from environment, used by living things.
Everthing occur naturally on earth are natural resources i.e. minerals, land, water, soil, wind. which can be used in many ways by human being.
Classification:
On the basis of renewability :
1. Renewable resources : eg - sunlight, air, water
2. Non- Renewable resources. eg- coal , petroleum
On the basis of "stage of development":
1. Potential resources : exist in a region and may be used later . eg - petroleum, water- we have to use water for producing electricity i.e. water is a potential resource to produce electricity.
2. Actual resources: Can be surveyed, their quality and quantity can be determined. eg- wood processing depends on technology available and the cost involved
3. Reserve resources: part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in the future
4. Stock Resources : that have been surveyed but cannot be used due to lack of technology.
eg- hydrogen
On the basis of origin:
1. Biotic : obtained from biosphere , such as forest, living and organic material. eg- coal, petroleum
2. Abiotic : come from non-living material, such as from land. eg- iron-ore, gold, copper.
Mineral resources:
Classification:
(in this article I will explain only metallic minerals. I'll explain non-metallic minerals and energy resources in separate articles)
A. Ferrous minerals :
-that have iron content
B. Non Ferrous minerals:
- no iron content.
Ferrous Metals
* IRON ORE:
Not found in pure form, it contain lime, magnesium, phosphorus, silica, sulphur and copper. It means if X place have iron ore then some of/or all of these 6 friends should be there.
First let us discuss types of iron ore. There are 4 types :
TypesIron content (in %)Features
1. Haematite(red-ochre)60-70 - also known as "oxide of iron"-massive, hard, compact and lumpy ore.-color : reddish or coral-red
2. Magnetite60-65- also known as "black ore"-color : obvious, black.
3. Limonite 35-50-also known as "hydrated iron-oxide"-color: yellow
4.Siderite 10-40- not economically extracted.
Distribution in world :
Major producers of iron ore and their share (acc to U S geological survey, 2010)
1. China : 34.5%
2. Brazil: 15.4%
3. Australia: 17.5%
4. India: 10.8%
5. Russia : 4.1%
Major iron ore mines are already explained in mrunal sir's article on "factors responsible for industries"
Other countries in which iron ore mines are present, but small amount of iron ore extracted from them : -
-Ukraine, south Africa, US, Canada, Iran, Sweden, Kazakhistan, Venezuela, Mexico, Mauritania, Chile, Peru, North Korea, Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria, Algeria, Egypt, New Zealand, Mongolia, Japan, Malaysia etc.
* MANGANESE:
Features/Uses:
- in manufacturing of iron and steel (used as raw material for smelting of iron), bleaching powder, insecticides, pesticides, paints, dry batteries, photography etc.
-Zimbabwe has the largest reserves of manganese, followed by India.
Major producers:
Country States in which mines are present
BrazilAmapaSerra Do Nario Mine : Largest producer and exporter of Manganese ore since 1957
Minas Gerais Marro Da Mina mine
ParaAzul and Buritirama Deposits In Carajas iron district
Mato Grosso Do SulCorumba District
South AfricaNorthern CapeConcentrated in Kalahari Manganese fields: Black rock mine, Gloria mine, Middleplaats mine, Mamatwan mine
North-West AfricaOnly one mine present here.
Gabon- The high-grade manganese deposits atMoanda, nearFranceville
China -in Liaoning, Hunan and Guangxi
Mexico-before 1960: Autlan deposit in Jalisco was major producer, but depleted in 1960's. -after 1960 : Molango deposits are major producers and put into production in 1968.
Ukraine-in Khersons'ka
Other countries : China, Mexico, Ukraine.
Non-Ferrous metals
* COPPER :
Features/uses:
-Highly ductile, strong and good conductor of electricity.
-Uses: in electrical machinery, automobile, stainless steel.
-Main alloys - Copper+zinc=brass & copper+tin=bronze.
Leading producers:
Countries States in which mines are present
Chile-Antofagasta mines : 5th largest producer of copper in the world.-copper mines are present in almost all states of chile.-Arica & Parinacota, Tarapaca, Antofagasta, Antacama, Blobia.
China- Jiangxi : Leading producer- Jiangxi Copper corp. -In Sinchua, Yunnan, Gansu, Jilin, Taiwan.
Peru-Leading producer : CMA's Antamina mine. -States where mines exists: Cajamarca, Apurimac, Cusco, Arequipa, Moquegua, Tanca.
US-found in Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Connecticut, Maine., Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, Wyoming
Australia-States : Queensland (large no of mines found here), South Australia (Olympic Dam mine), Tasmania, Northern Territory, New South Wales.
Russia- Northwestern :in Murmansk- Volgo: in Kirov-Siberian: in Irkutsk Oblast and Kraenoyarsk
Zambia-North Western Zambia, Copperbelt.
Congo-at boundary of Niari and Kouilou
Canada-British Columbia, Ontario, New Brusnswick
Mexico-Sonora, Zacatecas, Baja, California Sur.
Norway-Nordland ,Oppland.
Other countries which produce copper in small amount are : Bolivia and Norway.
* GOLD
Occurence :
- also foundworld'soceans: Atlantic and Northeast Pacific
Features/uses:
-high density, most malleable.
- ued in making or jewelry, for monetary exchanges, in medicines, food, electronics, in commercial industries (eg :in cynaide process. )
Major producers:
CountryStates in which mines are present
China-in Shandong, Henan, Fujian, Liaoning, Guizhou, Yunan
Australia-Northern Territory, Western Australia
US-Reed farminNorth Carolina, Virginia, California, Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Maryland, Michigan , Montano, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wyoming, Moraine gold
Russia-Siberain (in Kraenoyarsk), Irkutsk Oblast, Buryatia, Chukotka, Sakha, Magaden, Amur, Chechnya.
South Africa-Western cape, eastern Transvaal
Peru-Ucayali, Madre De Dios, Arequipa, Ayacucho, San Martin
Canada-In British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario (most of the reserves present here), Nova Scotia.
Ghana-Western Ghana(major reserves), Ashanti.
Indonesia-Grasberg: largest mine in world, in Papua.
Uzbekistan-Nawaoiy
Other countries where gold deposits are present : South Korea (in Chungcheong Namdo) , Egypt (in El Bahr El Ahmar), Congo (in Kouilou), Bolivia (in Pando, La Paz, Beni, Santa Cruz, Cochabamba), Brazil (in Ampa, Para, Mato Grosso, Ceara, Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo).
* SILVER
Occurence:
- Silver is found in native form, as an alloy with gold
Features/uses:
- veryductile,malleable(slightly harder thangold),monovalentcoinage metal
-highestelectrical conductivity, has the highestthermal conductivity, one of the highest opticalreflectivities
-used for making currency and jewelry , in manufacturing of chemicals, electroplating, photography, coloring of glasses, also used by dentists, in making or mirrors and optics.
CountryStates in which mines are present
Australia-Queensland
Russia-Kraenoyarsk, Magadan, Sabha, Zabaykalsky Krai.
Peru-La Libertad, Tacna, Ayacucho
Argentina-Jujuy, Chubut, Neuquen
Mexico-Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Zacatecas, Pachuca, Guanauato
Bolivia-La Paz, Qruro, Potosi
Poland
Chile-Antofagasta, Valaparaiso.
US-Alaska, Arizona,California, Colorado,Idaho, Missouri,Montana,Nevada,New Hampshire,New Mexico,North Carolina,Oklahoma,Oregon, Pennsylvania,Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington
Other countries : South Africa (in Northern Cap), South Korea ( Gyeonggi-Do)
* LEAD
Occurence :
-found in thesolar atmosphere, and much more abundantly in the atmospheres of somehot subdwarfs
-Metallic lead is very rare occur in nature. Obtained from galena, which is found in association with limestone, sandstone and calcareous slates.
-usually found inorewithzinc,silverand (most abundantly)copper
Features/Uses :
i. Heavy metal, malleable, soft and bad conductor of heat and electricity, high resistance to corrosion, ability to react with organic chemicals.
ii. used in alloys , cable cover, type-writers, lead-sheeting, ammunition, paints, glass making, paints making, automobiles, aeroplanes, calculating machines, printing and rubber industries.
Leading producers :
CountryStates in which mines are present
Australia-New South Wales, Tasmania, Queensland.
US-Idaho, Arizona, Alaska, Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma.
China-Yunna.
Canada-New Brunswick, Yukon, Nunavut, Ontario, British Columbia
Mexico-Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Zacatecas
Morocco-Nador, Figuig, Khenitra, Marrarech.
Peru-La Libertad, Cusco, Huanc Avelica.
South Africa- Northern Cape
North Korea-South Hamgyong Province, Ryanggang Province
Other countries: South Korea (Busan, Chunhcheong Namdo, Ganguon-Do, Gyeongci-Do), Spain(Castile & leon, Andalusia, Argon, Region DE Murcia), Chile (Los Lagos), Brazil (Bahia), Congo (Kouilou), Kazakhistan(Toldyqorghan, Shyghys Qazaqstan, Kzzylorda, Qaraghandy), Russia (Rostov, Perm, Altai, Primorsky)
* URANIUM
Occurence:
- found in low levels within all rock, soil, and water
- highest-numbered element to be found naturally in significant quantities on Earth and is almost always found combined with other elements
Features/Uses:
i. silvery-white + very highdensity + weakly radioactivemetal, which is harder thanmost elements
ii. Can react with almost all non-metallic elements and produce heat.
iii. Used in nuclear reactors + also used for tinting and shading in early photography
Some major producers :
CountryStates in which mines are present
Kazakhistan-Suzak, Jambyl, Qyzylorda, Aqmola, Pavlodarskaya Oblast, Aqtobe, Qaraghandy
Australia- has 31% world's reserves : Olympic DamMine in South Australia.
Canada-Saskatchewan: Athabasca Basin
Namibia-Arandis,Namib desert in western Nambia, Swakopmund,
Niger-Akokan, Arlit, Agadez
Russia-Stavropol, Buryatia
Some other countries : US, Ukrain, China, Uzbekistan
* CHROMITE
Occurence:
- Chromite is found inperidotitefrom the Earth'smantle
- occurs inlayeredultramaficintrusive rocks
-also found in metamorphic rocks such as someserpentinites.
-Oredeposits of chromite form as early magmatic differentiates.
Feature:
- is an Oxide of iron and manganese.
- Used in metallurgical and chemical industries.
- Alloy ingredient instainlessandtool steels.
Leading Producers:
-South Africa, India, Kazakhistan, Zimbabwe, Finland, Iran and Brazil.
-Biggest user of chromite : China , importing from S.Africa, Pakistan and other countries.
CountryStates in which mines are present
South Africa- World's largest producer.-Bushveld igneous complex: have very large deposites of chromite -in Eastern BIC, in the Steelpoort Valley.
Kazakhistan-2nd largest-Aqtoke
Zimbabwe-Tarastan
Finland-Lapland, Satakunta
Iran-Razavi Khorasan, Kerman
Brazil-Minas Gerais, Bahia
Minor producers: Afghanistan (Khost Province) , Pakistan (khanozai in Balochistan), Australia (Pilbararegion ofWestern Australia).
* ZINC
Occurence :
-found in association with lead and silver.
Features/uses :
i. Hard and brittle, fair conductr of electricity, low melting point and boiling point.
ii. used for alloying and for manufacturing galvanised sheets.
iii. also used for dry-battries, white pigments, electrodes, textiles, die-casting, rubber industry and for making collapsible tubes, containing drugs, and pastes.
Leading Producers:
CountryStates in which mines are present
China-Yunnan, Hunan
US-Colorado, New Jersey, Northern California, Arizona, Alaska, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma,
Bolivia-La Paz, Potosi, Chuquisaca
Mexico- Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Zacatecas
Australia-New South Wales, Tasmania, Queensland.
Canada-Saskatchewan, Manitora, New Branswick
Russia-Primorsky, Altai, Volgograd, Sverdlovsk
Kazakhistan-Shyghys Qazaqstan, Qaraghandy, Taldyqorghan, Kyzylorda
North Korea-Piyongan Bukto, Hwanghae Namido, Hwanghae-Bukto, Kangwon-Do, Hamgyong-Namdo, Hamgyong Bukto, Kangwon-Do.
Peru-Ayacucho, Cusco, ICA
Other countries : South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal) , Spain (Principado De Asturias, Castile and Leon, Comunidad Valencia), Argentia (Jujuy, Santa Fe)
* TUNGSTEN
Occurence :
-obtained from wolfram ore.
Features/uses:
- self hardening mineral, hence used in steel industries, manufacturing of ammunition, armour plates, heavy guns, hard cutting tools.
Leading producers:
CountryStates in which mines are present
China-leading producer.-Guangdong
Russia-Primorsky, Buryatia, Altai
Canada-Toronto, New Brunswick, Yukon, Northwest territory,
Bolivia-La Paz, Potosi
Austria-Salzburg
Thailand-Chiang Mai, Lampang, Kanchanaburi, Nakhon Si Thammarat
Brazil- Currais Novos in Northeastern Brazil
Peru-Puno, Junin
Portugal-Viseu
Other countries : Australia (BassStrait), South Korea (Ganguon-Do, Gyeongsany-Bukdo, Gyeongsang Namdo), North Korea(Kangwan-Do, Hwanghae Bukto, Piyongang Namdo)
* BAUXITE
Occurence:
- The early discovered carbonate bauxites occur predominantly inEuropeandJamaicaabovecarbonate rocks(limestoneanddolomite), where they were formed by lateriticweatheringand residual accumulation of intercalatedclaysor by clay dissolution residues of the limestone.
-mostly found in countries of tropics
-formed bylateritizationof varioussilicate rockssuch asgranite,gneiss,basalt,syenite, andshale
Features/Uses:
- main source of aluminium.
Major producers:
CountryStates in which mines are present
Australia-top producer.-Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland
Russia-Karelia, Perm
Brazil-Para, Maranhao, Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais.
Australia-Western australia, Northern territory, Queensland.
Vietnam-Binh Phuoc, Gia Lai
Jamaica-Trelawny, Saint Ann, Saint Elizabeth, Manchestor, Clarendon, Saint Catherine, Saint Kingston, Saint James, Portland
Guinea- Boke, Kindia
Ghana-Western Ghana
Other country : Kazakhistan (Kostanay)
Distribution in India
(Only Overview, as you can find in detail in Majid and Ncert)
Mineral belts of India:
1. The Chotanagpur Belt:
-stretches over Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Odisha, Bihar and West Bengal
-rich in : coal, mica, manganese, bauxite, iron, uranium phosphate, copper, dolomite, china-clay and limestone.
-Important mineral producing districts:
a. Jharkhand: Dhanbad, Hazaribagh, Palamu, Santhal-Pargana, Singhbhum.
b. Odisha: Cuttack, Dhankenal, Kendujhar, Koratput, Mayurbhanj, Sambhalpur, Sundargarh.
c. West Bengal : Bankura, Birbhum, Medinipur, Purulia.
2. Midland Belt:
-Chattisgarh, MP, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
-Rich in: manganese ore, bauxite, mica, copper, graphite, limestone, lignite, marble.
3. The Southern belt:
-Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
-rich in : gold, iron ore, chromite, manganese, lignite, mica, bauxite, gypsum, asbestos, dolomite, ilmenite, china-clay, limestone.
4. The Western belt:
-Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
-Rich in: copper, lead, zinc, uranium, mica, manganese, salt, asbestos, precious stones, building stones, mineral oil and natural gas.
5. The Southern-Western belt:
-Goa, Karnataka, Kerala.
-Rich in: iron ore, ilmenite, zircon, monazite sands, garnet, china-clay, bauxite, mica, limestone and soapstone.
6. The Himalayan belt:
-poor in metallic minerals
-minerals found in small quantity: copper, lead, zinc, bismuth, bauxite, antimony, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, precious stone, gold, silver, gypsum, limestone and dolomite.
7. The Indian Ocean:
-Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are rich in mineral oil and natural gas.
-Also contain: manganese, phosphate, barium, aluminum, silicon, iron, titanium, sodium, potassium, chromium, monazite, ilmenite, magnetite, garnet.
Mineral States in which mines are present
Iron-ore -Karnataka, Odisha, Chattisgarh, Goa, Jharkhand
Manganese-Odisha, Maharashtra, MP, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Copper-MP, Rajasthan, Jharkhand
Chromite-Odisha, Karnataka, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh
Uranium-Jharkhand
Lead-Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, MP, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, West Bengal
Zinc-Rajasthan, Sikkim, Jammu, Bihar, MP, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya, Kashmir
Tungsten-Rajasthan , West Bengal, Maharashtra, Mysore, Gujarat, Jharkhand
Bauxite-Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Bihar, Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, Tamil Nadu, MP
Gold- Rajasthan , West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh
Silver- Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Name: Nisha Vats
Prologue: Collect information from misc sources, can't mention all of them here. I just collect them in this single article. I am not saying that this information is sufficient, but I hope it will helpful.
Lets start with small introduction :
What are natural resources?
-material and component formed within environment
or. any matter or energy derived from environment, used by living things.
Everthing occur naturally on earth are natural resources i.e. minerals, land, water, soil, wind. which can be used in many ways by human being.
Classification:
On the basis of renewability :
1. Renewable resources : eg - sunlight, air, water
2. Non- Renewable resources. eg- coal , petroleum
On the basis of "stage of development":
1. Potential resources : exist in a region and may be used later . eg - petroleum, water- we have to use water for producing electricity i.e. water is a potential resource to produce electricity.
2. Actual resources: Can be surveyed, their quality and quantity can be determined. eg- wood processing depends on technology available and the cost involved
3. Reserve resources: part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in the future
4. Stock Resources : that have been surveyed but cannot be used due to lack of technology.
eg- hydrogen
On the basis of origin:
1. Biotic : obtained from biosphere , such as forest, living and organic material. eg- coal, petroleum
2. Abiotic : come from non-living material, such as from land. eg- iron-ore, gold, copper.
Mineral resources:
Classification:
(in this article I will explain only metallic minerals. I'll explain non-metallic minerals and energy resources in separate articles)
A. Ferrous minerals :
-that have iron content
B. Non Ferrous minerals:
- no iron content.
Ferrous Metals
* IRON ORE:
Not found in pure form, it contain lime, magnesium, phosphorus, silica, sulphur and copper. It means if X place have iron ore then some of/or all of these 6 friends should be there.
First let us discuss types of iron ore. There are 4 types :
TypesIron content (in %)Features
1. Haematite(red-ochre)60-70 - also known as "oxide of iron"-massive, hard, compact and lumpy ore.-color : reddish or coral-red
2. Magnetite60-65- also known as "black ore"-color : obvious, black.
3. Limonite 35-50-also known as "hydrated iron-oxide"-color: yellow
4.Siderite 10-40- not economically extracted.
Distribution in world :
Major producers of iron ore and their share (acc to U S geological survey, 2010)
1. China : 34.5%
2. Brazil: 15.4%
3. Australia: 17.5%
4. India: 10.8%
5. Russia : 4.1%
Major iron ore mines are already explained in mrunal sir's article on "factors responsible for industries"
Other countries in which iron ore mines are present, but small amount of iron ore extracted from them : -
-Ukraine, south Africa, US, Canada, Iran, Sweden, Kazakhistan, Venezuela, Mexico, Mauritania, Chile, Peru, North Korea, Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria, Algeria, Egypt, New Zealand, Mongolia, Japan, Malaysia etc.
* MANGANESE:
Features/Uses:
- in manufacturing of iron and steel (used as raw material for smelting of iron), bleaching powder, insecticides, pesticides, paints, dry batteries, photography etc.
-Zimbabwe has the largest reserves of manganese, followed by India.
Major producers:
Country States in which mines are present
BrazilAmapaSerra Do Nario Mine : Largest producer and exporter of Manganese ore since 1957
Minas Gerais Marro Da Mina mine
ParaAzul and Buritirama Deposits In Carajas iron district
Mato Grosso Do SulCorumba District
South AfricaNorthern CapeConcentrated in Kalahari Manganese fields: Black rock mine, Gloria mine, Middleplaats mine, Mamatwan mine
North-West AfricaOnly one mine present here.
Gabon- The high-grade manganese deposits atMoanda, nearFranceville
China -in Liaoning, Hunan and Guangxi
Mexico-before 1960: Autlan deposit in Jalisco was major producer, but depleted in 1960's. -after 1960 : Molango deposits are major producers and put into production in 1968.
Ukraine-in Khersons'ka
Other countries : China, Mexico, Ukraine.
Non-Ferrous metals
* COPPER :
Features/uses:
-Highly ductile, strong and good conductor of electricity.
-Uses: in electrical machinery, automobile, stainless steel.
-Main alloys - Copper+zinc=brass & copper+tin=bronze.
Leading producers:
Countries States in which mines are present
Chile-Antofagasta mines : 5th largest producer of copper in the world.-copper mines are present in almost all states of chile.-Arica & Parinacota, Tarapaca, Antofagasta, Antacama, Blobia.
China- Jiangxi : Leading producer- Jiangxi Copper corp. -In Sinchua, Yunnan, Gansu, Jilin, Taiwan.
Peru-Leading producer : CMA's Antamina mine. -States where mines exists: Cajamarca, Apurimac, Cusco, Arequipa, Moquegua, Tanca.
US-found in Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Connecticut, Maine., Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, Wyoming
Australia-States : Queensland (large no of mines found here), South Australia (Olympic Dam mine), Tasmania, Northern Territory, New South Wales.
Russia- Northwestern :in Murmansk- Volgo: in Kirov-Siberian: in Irkutsk Oblast and Kraenoyarsk
Zambia-North Western Zambia, Copperbelt.
Congo-at boundary of Niari and Kouilou
Canada-British Columbia, Ontario, New Brusnswick
Mexico-Sonora, Zacatecas, Baja, California Sur.
Norway-Nordland ,Oppland.
Other countries which produce copper in small amount are : Bolivia and Norway.
* GOLD
Occurence :
- also foundworld'soceans: Atlantic and Northeast Pacific
Features/uses:
-high density, most malleable.
- ued in making or jewelry, for monetary exchanges, in medicines, food, electronics, in commercial industries (eg :in cynaide process. )
Major producers:
CountryStates in which mines are present
China-in Shandong, Henan, Fujian, Liaoning, Guizhou, Yunan
Australia-Northern Territory, Western Australia
US-Reed farminNorth Carolina, Virginia, California, Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Maryland, Michigan , Montano, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wyoming, Moraine gold
Russia-Siberain (in Kraenoyarsk), Irkutsk Oblast, Buryatia, Chukotka, Sakha, Magaden, Amur, Chechnya.
South Africa-Western cape, eastern Transvaal
Peru-Ucayali, Madre De Dios, Arequipa, Ayacucho, San Martin
Canada-In British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario (most of the reserves present here), Nova Scotia.
Ghana-Western Ghana(major reserves), Ashanti.
Indonesia-Grasberg: largest mine in world, in Papua.
Uzbekistan-Nawaoiy
Other countries where gold deposits are present : South Korea (in Chungcheong Namdo) , Egypt (in El Bahr El Ahmar), Congo (in Kouilou), Bolivia (in Pando, La Paz, Beni, Santa Cruz, Cochabamba), Brazil (in Ampa, Para, Mato Grosso, Ceara, Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo).
* SILVER
Occurence:
- Silver is found in native form, as an alloy with gold
Features/uses:
- veryductile,malleable(slightly harder thangold),monovalentcoinage metal
-highestelectrical conductivity, has the highestthermal conductivity, one of the highest opticalreflectivities
-used for making currency and jewelry , in manufacturing of chemicals, electroplating, photography, coloring of glasses, also used by dentists, in making or mirrors and optics.
CountryStates in which mines are present
Australia-Queensland
Russia-Kraenoyarsk, Magadan, Sabha, Zabaykalsky Krai.
Peru-La Libertad, Tacna, Ayacucho
Argentina-Jujuy, Chubut, Neuquen
Mexico-Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Zacatecas, Pachuca, Guanauato
Bolivia-La Paz, Qruro, Potosi
Poland
Chile-Antofagasta, Valaparaiso.
US-Alaska, Arizona,California, Colorado,Idaho, Missouri,Montana,Nevada,New Hampshire,New Mexico,North Carolina,Oklahoma,Oregon, Pennsylvania,Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington
Other countries : South Africa (in Northern Cap), South Korea ( Gyeonggi-Do)
* LEAD
Occurence :
-found in thesolar atmosphere, and much more abundantly in the atmospheres of somehot subdwarfs
-Metallic lead is very rare occur in nature. Obtained from galena, which is found in association with limestone, sandstone and calcareous slates.
-usually found inorewithzinc,silverand (most abundantly)copper
Features/Uses :
i. Heavy metal, malleable, soft and bad conductor of heat and electricity, high resistance to corrosion, ability to react with organic chemicals.
ii. used in alloys , cable cover, type-writers, lead-sheeting, ammunition, paints, glass making, paints making, automobiles, aeroplanes, calculating machines, printing and rubber industries.
Leading producers :
CountryStates in which mines are present
Australia-New South Wales, Tasmania, Queensland.
US-Idaho, Arizona, Alaska, Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma.
China-Yunna.
Canada-New Brunswick, Yukon, Nunavut, Ontario, British Columbia
Mexico-Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Zacatecas
Morocco-Nador, Figuig, Khenitra, Marrarech.
Peru-La Libertad, Cusco, Huanc Avelica.
South Africa- Northern Cape
North Korea-South Hamgyong Province, Ryanggang Province
Other countries: South Korea (Busan, Chunhcheong Namdo, Ganguon-Do, Gyeongci-Do), Spain(Castile & leon, Andalusia, Argon, Region DE Murcia), Chile (Los Lagos), Brazil (Bahia), Congo (Kouilou), Kazakhistan(Toldyqorghan, Shyghys Qazaqstan, Kzzylorda, Qaraghandy), Russia (Rostov, Perm, Altai, Primorsky)
* URANIUM
Occurence:
- found in low levels within all rock, soil, and water
- highest-numbered element to be found naturally in significant quantities on Earth and is almost always found combined with other elements
Features/Uses:
i. silvery-white + very highdensity + weakly radioactivemetal, which is harder thanmost elements
ii. Can react with almost all non-metallic elements and produce heat.
iii. Used in nuclear reactors + also used for tinting and shading in early photography
Some major producers :
CountryStates in which mines are present
Kazakhistan-Suzak, Jambyl, Qyzylorda, Aqmola, Pavlodarskaya Oblast, Aqtobe, Qaraghandy
Australia- has 31% world's reserves : Olympic DamMine in South Australia.
Canada-Saskatchewan: Athabasca Basin
Namibia-Arandis,Namib desert in western Nambia, Swakopmund,
Niger-Akokan, Arlit, Agadez
Russia-Stavropol, Buryatia
Some other countries : US, Ukrain, China, Uzbekistan
* CHROMITE
Occurence:
- Chromite is found inperidotitefrom the Earth'smantle
- occurs inlayeredultramaficintrusive rocks
-also found in metamorphic rocks such as someserpentinites.
-Oredeposits of chromite form as early magmatic differentiates.
Feature:
- is an Oxide of iron and manganese.
- Used in metallurgical and chemical industries.
- Alloy ingredient instainlessandtool steels.
Leading Producers:
-South Africa, India, Kazakhistan, Zimbabwe, Finland, Iran and Brazil.
-Biggest user of chromite : China , importing from S.Africa, Pakistan and other countries.
CountryStates in which mines are present
South Africa- World's largest producer.-Bushveld igneous complex: have very large deposites of chromite -in Eastern BIC, in the Steelpoort Valley.
Kazakhistan-2nd largest-Aqtoke
Zimbabwe-Tarastan
Finland-Lapland, Satakunta
Iran-Razavi Khorasan, Kerman
Brazil-Minas Gerais, Bahia
Minor producers: Afghanistan (Khost Province) , Pakistan (khanozai in Balochistan), Australia (Pilbararegion ofWestern Australia).
* ZINC
Occurence :
-found in association with lead and silver.
Features/uses :
i. Hard and brittle, fair conductr of electricity, low melting point and boiling point.
ii. used for alloying and for manufacturing galvanised sheets.
iii. also used for dry-battries, white pigments, electrodes, textiles, die-casting, rubber industry and for making collapsible tubes, containing drugs, and pastes.
Leading Producers:
CountryStates in which mines are present
China-Yunnan, Hunan
US-Colorado, New Jersey, Northern California, Arizona, Alaska, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma,
Bolivia-La Paz, Potosi, Chuquisaca
Mexico- Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Zacatecas
Australia-New South Wales, Tasmania, Queensland.
Canada-Saskatchewan, Manitora, New Branswick
Russia-Primorsky, Altai, Volgograd, Sverdlovsk
Kazakhistan-Shyghys Qazaqstan, Qaraghandy, Taldyqorghan, Kyzylorda
North Korea-Piyongan Bukto, Hwanghae Namido, Hwanghae-Bukto, Kangwon-Do, Hamgyong-Namdo, Hamgyong Bukto, Kangwon-Do.
Peru-Ayacucho, Cusco, ICA
Other countries : South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal) , Spain (Principado De Asturias, Castile and Leon, Comunidad Valencia), Argentia (Jujuy, Santa Fe)
* TUNGSTEN
Occurence :
-obtained from wolfram ore.
Features/uses:
- self hardening mineral, hence used in steel industries, manufacturing of ammunition, armour plates, heavy guns, hard cutting tools.
Leading producers:
CountryStates in which mines are present
China-leading producer.-Guangdong
Russia-Primorsky, Buryatia, Altai
Canada-Toronto, New Brunswick, Yukon, Northwest territory,
Bolivia-La Paz, Potosi
Austria-Salzburg
Thailand-Chiang Mai, Lampang, Kanchanaburi, Nakhon Si Thammarat
Brazil- Currais Novos in Northeastern Brazil
Peru-Puno, Junin
Portugal-Viseu
Other countries : Australia (BassStrait), South Korea (Ganguon-Do, Gyeongsany-Bukdo, Gyeongsang Namdo), North Korea(Kangwan-Do, Hwanghae Bukto, Piyongang Namdo)
* BAUXITE
Occurence:
- The early discovered carbonate bauxites occur predominantly inEuropeandJamaicaabovecarbonate rocks(limestoneanddolomite), where they were formed by lateriticweatheringand residual accumulation of intercalatedclaysor by clay dissolution residues of the limestone.
-mostly found in countries of tropics
-formed bylateritizationof varioussilicate rockssuch asgranite,gneiss,basalt,syenite, andshale
Features/Uses:
- main source of aluminium.
Major producers:
CountryStates in which mines are present
Australia-top producer.-Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland
Russia-Karelia, Perm
Brazil-Para, Maranhao, Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais.
Australia-Western australia, Northern territory, Queensland.
Vietnam-Binh Phuoc, Gia Lai
Jamaica-Trelawny, Saint Ann, Saint Elizabeth, Manchestor, Clarendon, Saint Catherine, Saint Kingston, Saint James, Portland
Guinea- Boke, Kindia
Ghana-Western Ghana
Other country : Kazakhistan (Kostanay)
Distribution in India
(Only Overview, as you can find in detail in Majid and Ncert)
Mineral belts of India:
1. The Chotanagpur Belt:
-stretches over Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Odisha, Bihar and West Bengal
-rich in : coal, mica, manganese, bauxite, iron, uranium phosphate, copper, dolomite, china-clay and limestone.
-Important mineral producing districts:
a. Jharkhand: Dhanbad, Hazaribagh, Palamu, Santhal-Pargana, Singhbhum.
b. Odisha: Cuttack, Dhankenal, Kendujhar, Koratput, Mayurbhanj, Sambhalpur, Sundargarh.
c. West Bengal : Bankura, Birbhum, Medinipur, Purulia.
2. Midland Belt:
-Chattisgarh, MP, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
-Rich in: manganese ore, bauxite, mica, copper, graphite, limestone, lignite, marble.
3. The Southern belt:
-Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
-rich in : gold, iron ore, chromite, manganese, lignite, mica, bauxite, gypsum, asbestos, dolomite, ilmenite, china-clay, limestone.
4. The Western belt:
-Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
-Rich in: copper, lead, zinc, uranium, mica, manganese, salt, asbestos, precious stones, building stones, mineral oil and natural gas.
5. The Southern-Western belt:
-Goa, Karnataka, Kerala.
-Rich in: iron ore, ilmenite, zircon, monazite sands, garnet, china-clay, bauxite, mica, limestone and soapstone.
6. The Himalayan belt:
-poor in metallic minerals
-minerals found in small quantity: copper, lead, zinc, bismuth, bauxite, antimony, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, precious stone, gold, silver, gypsum, limestone and dolomite.
7. The Indian Ocean:
-Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are rich in mineral oil and natural gas.
-Also contain: manganese, phosphate, barium, aluminum, silicon, iron, titanium, sodium, potassium, chromium, monazite, ilmenite, magnetite, garnet.
Mineral States in which mines are present
Iron-ore -Karnataka, Odisha, Chattisgarh, Goa, Jharkhand
Manganese-Odisha, Maharashtra, MP, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Copper-MP, Rajasthan, Jharkhand
Chromite-Odisha, Karnataka, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh
Uranium-Jharkhand
Lead-Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, MP, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, West Bengal
Zinc-Rajasthan, Sikkim, Jammu, Bihar, MP, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya, Kashmir
Tungsten-Rajasthan , West Bengal, Maharashtra, Mysore, Gujarat, Jharkhand
Bauxite-Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Bihar, Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, Tamil Nadu, MP
Gold- Rajasthan , West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh
Silver- Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Name: Nisha Vats
I am compiling this article as the union cabinet has
I am compiling this article as the union cabinet has given clearance to Coal India Limited for CBM explorations (Hindu 20/12/13).
Here I have given details of CBM as energy resource its importance, extraction process, deposits in India and world.
Also a Q&A format is provided in the end for brief details.
Brief:
1. The existing rules prohibit mining firms from extracting CBM during mining as the policy does not allow for simultaneous extraction of CBM and coal. CBM exploration and production is allowed only in pure coal-seam gas bearing blocks, which are auctioned. Since 2001, 33 CBM blocks have been awarded in four auction rounds. According to the Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH), India has CBM reserves of about 4.6 trillion cubic meters.
2. CIL holds at least 20% of the estimated 60 billion tons of coal resources in India. It has coal mines in eight States, which are estimated to have CBM reserves of 3.5-4 trillion cubic feet. It was felt that many of the acreage of CIL were gaseous and unsafe mines, where mining of coal would be possible only after the extraction of CBM.
COAL BASED METHANE (CBM)
Introduction
Coal bed methane extraction is one of the nation's fastest growing alternative energy industries, currently accounting for approximately seven percent of the nation's natural gas supply. Coal bed methane extraction is a process for collecting methane reserves from coal deposits. The increasing demand for alternative energy sources and cleaner burning fossil fuels will undoubtedly continue to stimulate growth in this emerging industry. Although coal bed methane is touted as "clean" energy; the extraction of coal bed methane has significant environmental consequences on the local ecology. At particular risk are local residents, farmers and businesses relying on ground and surface water for domestic purposes.
To meet the rapidly increasing demand for energy and faster depletion of conventional energy resources, India with other countries is madly searching for alternate resources like coal bed methane (CBM), shale gas, gas hydrate. CBM is considered to be the most viable resource of these
Coalbed methane is generated during coalification process which gets adsorbed on coal at higher pressure.
However, it is a mining hazard. Presence of CBM in underground mine not only makes mining works difficult and risky, but also makes it costly. Even, its ventilation to atmosphere adds greenhouse gas causing global warming. However, CBM is a remarkably clean fuel if utilizedefficiently. CBM is a clean gas having heating value of approximately 8500 KCal/kg compared to 9000 KCal/kg of natural gas.
It is of pipe line quality; hence can be fed directly to national pipeline grid without much treatment. Production of methane gas from coalbed would lead to de-methanation of coalbeds and avoidance of methane emissions into the atmosphere, thus turning an environmental hazard into a clean energy resource.
INDIA
As the third largest coal producer in the world, India has good prospects for commercial production of coal bed methane. Methane may be a possible alternative to compressed natural gas (CNG) and its use as automotive fuel will certainly help reducing pollution levels. India is one of the select countries which have undertaken steps through a transparent policy to harness domestic CBM resources. The Government of India has received overwhelming responses from prospective producers with several big players starting operations on exploration and development of CBM in India and set to become the fourth after US, Australia and China in terms of exploration and production of coal bed methane. However, in order to fully develop India's CBM potential, delineation of prospective CBM blocks is necessary. There are other measures like provision of technical training, promotion of research and development, and transfer of CBM development technologies that can further the growth of the sector. India lacks in CBM related services which delayed the scheduled production. Efficient production of CBM is becoming a real challenge to the E & P companies due to lack in detailed reservoir characterization. So far, the most investigations have been limited to measurement of adsorption isotherms under static conditions and is deficient in providing information of gas pressure-driven and concentration-driven conditions. More care should be taken on measurement of porosity and permeability also. To produce more methane from the coal enhanced technology like CO2 sequestration may be implemented. This process can not only reduce the emission of this gas to atmosphere, will also help in extra production of methane gas. Though, presently, CO2 is not an implemented much because of high cost. But the necessity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has provided a dual role for coalbeds - as a source of natural gas and as a repository for CO2. In the present investigation, Singareni coal field has been selected as the study area. Samples have been collected from various locations & depths. Standard methods have been followed to characterize the collected coal samples and evaluation gas reserve.
Global
The largest CBM resource bases lie in the former Soviet Union, Canada, China, Australia and the United States. However, much of the worlds CBM recovery potential remains untapped. In 2006 it was estimated that of global resources totaling 143 trillion cubic meters, only 1 trillion cubic meters was actually recovered from reserves. This is due to a lack of incentive in some countries to fully exploit the resource base, particularly in parts of the former
Soviet Union where conventional natural gas is abundant.
PRODUCTION
Production of gas is controlled by a three step process (i) desorption of gas from the coal matrix, (ii) diffusion to the cleat system, and (iii)flow through fractures
Many coal reservoirs are water saturated, and water provides the reservoir pressure that holds gas in the adsorbed state. Flow of coal bed methane involves movement of methane molecules along a pressure gradient. The diffusion through the matrix pore structure, and steps include desorption from the microspores, finally fluid flows (Darcy) through the coal fracture (cleat) system. Coalseams have two sets of mode; breaking in tension joints or fractures that run perpendicular to one another. The main hurdle associated with the production of CBM is the requirement of long dewatering of coal bed before production. This difficulty may be resolved to some extent with implementing the CO2 sequestration technology. Due to higher adsorption affinity of CO2 to coal surface, methane will be forced to desorbs from the coal surface at comparatively high pressure and can reduce the dewatering time and hence the total project period. Also the problem associated with variation in coal properties related to pressure depletion may be alleviated. China, Australia, USA have been started to implement this technology for enhanced recovery of CBM gases.
CONCLUSIONS
CBM technology is proceeding with good space to prove itself as a cleaner energy security to India as well as the World. However, production strategy of methane from CBM is very much different from conventional gas reservoir. The study revealed that the coal type, rank, volatile matter and fixed carbon are strongly influence the adsorption capacity of methane into the coal bed. With increasing depth maturation of coal increases and generation of methane gas also increases. Gondwana basin as the most prospective CBM field is being developed now. From the studies, it is observed that Singareni coal field under Gondwana basin contains low gas. Hence, presently it is not considered for CBM extraction. However, in future this field may be considered for methane extraction using advanced technology and in emergency condition
http://www.ijcea.org/papers/113-A618.pdf
Q &A Format
What Is Coal Bed Methane?
Coal bed methane is a natural gas by-product of coal formation. During coal formation, organic matter is chemically broken down into simple organic compounds. Methane is a by-product of this breakdown.
Coal is very porous but lacks matrix permeability. In other words, water can seep into coal but can't flow through it. Naturally occurring fractures in coal allow ground water to permeate the coal and provide the means through which the methane is stored in the coal bed. Due to coal's porous nature, methane gas produced during coal formation is absorbed into the coal bed and held in place by the weight of the surrounding groundwater.
How Is Coal Bed Methane Extracted?
In order to commercially produce coal bed methane, it is necessary to decrease the water pressure within the coal bed. When the pressure is decreased, the methane gas naturally desorbs from the coal and migrates through the coal bed.
This natural phenomenon is the basis for coal bed methane production. In extracting methane from coal beds, a well is drilled down to the coal bed and the sides of the well are then encased in concrete. A water pump is dropped down into the coal bed and the top of the well is sealed with a venting pipe to collect the methane. Large amounts of groundwater are pumped out of the coal bed, causing a corresponding decrease in water pressure. The decreased water pressure allows the methane to escape from the coal and migrate along the coal fractures and up into the well. The methane is then pumped from the well through the venting pipe where it is compressed and sold.
What Are the Environmental Effects of Coal Bed Methane Extraction?
Water Depletion.
One of the environmental effects of coal bed methane extraction is the immense quantity of water pumped out of the coal bed aquifers. On average, approximately 12-15 gallons of water per minute are pumped from each well. During the initial phase of production, water is pumped at a very high rate. The extracted water is typically discharged into local streams or reinjected into the ground. Where the coal bed groundwater is relatively pure, surface discharge is the most common method of disposal. Smaller quantities are sometime stored in large pits for evaporation but this method is inefficient to deal with massive quantities of extracted groundwater. The removal and disposal of so much groundwater raises several concerns.
One concern is that drainage of a coal bed aquifer will cause shallower aquifers to drain into the cavity created by the coal bed water extraction. This is a particular concern for local landowners relying on well water pumped from shallow aquifers, which is often the case, as aquifers used for domestic water wells tend to be shallower than coal bed aquifers. In several reported cases, local water wells have gone dry after coal bed methane operations have begun.
A similar concern exists for coal bed aquifers that are tributaries to surface waters or adjacent groundwater aquifers, i.e., coal bed aquifers that contribute to other water sources. The drainage of tributary coal bed aquifers can cause a corresponding decline in the water levels of the contributory water sources. Consequently, water depletion from coal bed methane operations can have a significant impact on residents, farmers and businesses relying on affected water supplies.
Surface Water Discharge.
Because surface discharge is the most common disposal option for the extracted coal bed water,
the compositional characteristics of coal bed water can have a tremendous impact on the surrounding ecology. The quality of coal bed water varies considerably from well to well and basin to basin, but, on average, the deeper the coal bed, the more saline the water becomes. Other compositional elements typically seen in extracted coal bed water include:
Major Cations (positively charged ions such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, & calcium)
Major Anions (negatively charged ions such as chlorine, sulfate, & hydrogen carbonate)
Trace Elements & Metals (iron, manganese, barium, chromium, arsenic, selenium, & mercury)
Organics (hydrocarbons and additives).
The saline and sodic quality of coal bed water can have catastrophic impacts on local agriculture when discharged into local waterways. The moderate to high levels of salt in coal bed water can destroy soils and decrease crop production. The salts gather in the root base of plants, making it harder for the plants to extract water from the soil and inhibiting growth. As many farmers make use of stream and river diversion to water their crops and grazing fields, the surface discharge of coal bed water can negatively impact local agriculture.
Unlike salinity, which measures the quantity of dissolved salts in water, sodic water is measured by the proportion of sodium to calcium and magnesium. Sodic water interacts with fine soils, like clay, and results in the formation of a hard crust that severely impairs water and air permeation. Sodic water can cause a sharp decrease in the growth of crops and other vegetation.
Chemical & Radioactive Contamination.
Because coal bed methane extraction depends upon the natural fractures within the coal bed, gas companies routinely attempt to increase the extent of coal bed fracturing in order to boost methane production. Hydraulic fracturing is a technique used for this purpose. Hydraulic fracturing pumps a mixture of heavy chemicals, water, sand and/or other materials down an extraction well under extremely high pressure in order to achieve the desired fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing raises serious concerns because of the chemicals being used and their impact on the local ecology.
If the coal bed aquifer is tributary to surface water or other groundwater aquifers, chemical contamination can spread into domestic, agricultural, and industrial water supplies. Because hydraulic fracturing typically precedes the water extraction phase, much of the fracturing fluid will be pumped out of the aquifer along with the bulk of the groundwater. Where surface discharge is used to dispose of the extracted groundwater, the fracturing fluid is discharged along with the groundwater directly into local waterways, potentially contaminating water sources relied upon by local communities.
The types of chemicals used in fracturing fluids vary from company to company. In some states, companies are not required to disclose the chemicals used in their mining operations, so the extent of contamination is still unknown. Based on Material Safety Data Sheets obtained from several coal bed methane operators, many of the chemicals used are highly toxic, water soluble, volatile, and highly mobile-some are even radioactive.
Despite the fact that large amounts of hazardous chemicals are known to be injected directly into the coal bed aquifer, there is shockingly little oversight. Coal bed aquifers often contain potable or high-quality water and the injection of fracturing fluids into such water sources can permanently contaminate a viable source of water.
Conclusion
Coal bed methane production is a rapidly growing industry that will undoubted continue to expand under the nation's demand for alternative energy sources. Although global climate concerns have illustrated the need for the development of clean burning fossil fuels, coal bed methane production is not without its environmental hazards. Water depletion from coal bed methane production can adversely impact adjacent residents, farmers and businesses that rely on local groundwater and surface waters. The saline and sodic quality of coal bed water can inhibit plant growth when discharged into local waterways. Chemical contamination resulting from hydraulic fracturing poses a significant threat to domestic, agricultural, and industrial water supplies and anyone unfortunate enough to be exposed to such hazardous materials. While the use of cleaner energy sources must be encouraged, such development should not proceed to the detriment of local communities.
by Rahul Khairnar
References
http://www.brianmcmahonlaw.com/CM/Client-Bulletin/Client-Bulletin7.html
http://www.ijcea.org/papers/113-A618.pdf
Here I have given details of CBM as energy resource its importance, extraction process, deposits in India and world.
Also a Q&A format is provided in the end for brief details.
Brief:
1. The existing rules prohibit mining firms from extracting CBM during mining as the policy does not allow for simultaneous extraction of CBM and coal. CBM exploration and production is allowed only in pure coal-seam gas bearing blocks, which are auctioned. Since 2001, 33 CBM blocks have been awarded in four auction rounds. According to the Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH), India has CBM reserves of about 4.6 trillion cubic meters.
2. CIL holds at least 20% of the estimated 60 billion tons of coal resources in India. It has coal mines in eight States, which are estimated to have CBM reserves of 3.5-4 trillion cubic feet. It was felt that many of the acreage of CIL were gaseous and unsafe mines, where mining of coal would be possible only after the extraction of CBM.
COAL BASED METHANE (CBM)
Introduction
Coal bed methane extraction is one of the nation's fastest growing alternative energy industries, currently accounting for approximately seven percent of the nation's natural gas supply. Coal bed methane extraction is a process for collecting methane reserves from coal deposits. The increasing demand for alternative energy sources and cleaner burning fossil fuels will undoubtedly continue to stimulate growth in this emerging industry. Although coal bed methane is touted as "clean" energy; the extraction of coal bed methane has significant environmental consequences on the local ecology. At particular risk are local residents, farmers and businesses relying on ground and surface water for domestic purposes.
To meet the rapidly increasing demand for energy and faster depletion of conventional energy resources, India with other countries is madly searching for alternate resources like coal bed methane (CBM), shale gas, gas hydrate. CBM is considered to be the most viable resource of these
Coalbed methane is generated during coalification process which gets adsorbed on coal at higher pressure.
However, it is a mining hazard. Presence of CBM in underground mine not only makes mining works difficult and risky, but also makes it costly. Even, its ventilation to atmosphere adds greenhouse gas causing global warming. However, CBM is a remarkably clean fuel if utilizedefficiently. CBM is a clean gas having heating value of approximately 8500 KCal/kg compared to 9000 KCal/kg of natural gas.
It is of pipe line quality; hence can be fed directly to national pipeline grid without much treatment. Production of methane gas from coalbed would lead to de-methanation of coalbeds and avoidance of methane emissions into the atmosphere, thus turning an environmental hazard into a clean energy resource.
INDIA
As the third largest coal producer in the world, India has good prospects for commercial production of coal bed methane. Methane may be a possible alternative to compressed natural gas (CNG) and its use as automotive fuel will certainly help reducing pollution levels. India is one of the select countries which have undertaken steps through a transparent policy to harness domestic CBM resources. The Government of India has received overwhelming responses from prospective producers with several big players starting operations on exploration and development of CBM in India and set to become the fourth after US, Australia and China in terms of exploration and production of coal bed methane. However, in order to fully develop India's CBM potential, delineation of prospective CBM blocks is necessary. There are other measures like provision of technical training, promotion of research and development, and transfer of CBM development technologies that can further the growth of the sector. India lacks in CBM related services which delayed the scheduled production. Efficient production of CBM is becoming a real challenge to the E & P companies due to lack in detailed reservoir characterization. So far, the most investigations have been limited to measurement of adsorption isotherms under static conditions and is deficient in providing information of gas pressure-driven and concentration-driven conditions. More care should be taken on measurement of porosity and permeability also. To produce more methane from the coal enhanced technology like CO2 sequestration may be implemented. This process can not only reduce the emission of this gas to atmosphere, will also help in extra production of methane gas. Though, presently, CO2 is not an implemented much because of high cost. But the necessity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has provided a dual role for coalbeds - as a source of natural gas and as a repository for CO2. In the present investigation, Singareni coal field has been selected as the study area. Samples have been collected from various locations & depths. Standard methods have been followed to characterize the collected coal samples and evaluation gas reserve.
Global
The largest CBM resource bases lie in the former Soviet Union, Canada, China, Australia and the United States. However, much of the worlds CBM recovery potential remains untapped. In 2006 it was estimated that of global resources totaling 143 trillion cubic meters, only 1 trillion cubic meters was actually recovered from reserves. This is due to a lack of incentive in some countries to fully exploit the resource base, particularly in parts of the former
Soviet Union where conventional natural gas is abundant.
PRODUCTION
Production of gas is controlled by a three step process (i) desorption of gas from the coal matrix, (ii) diffusion to the cleat system, and (iii)flow through fractures
Many coal reservoirs are water saturated, and water provides the reservoir pressure that holds gas in the adsorbed state. Flow of coal bed methane involves movement of methane molecules along a pressure gradient. The diffusion through the matrix pore structure, and steps include desorption from the microspores, finally fluid flows (Darcy) through the coal fracture (cleat) system. Coalseams have two sets of mode; breaking in tension joints or fractures that run perpendicular to one another. The main hurdle associated with the production of CBM is the requirement of long dewatering of coal bed before production. This difficulty may be resolved to some extent with implementing the CO2 sequestration technology. Due to higher adsorption affinity of CO2 to coal surface, methane will be forced to desorbs from the coal surface at comparatively high pressure and can reduce the dewatering time and hence the total project period. Also the problem associated with variation in coal properties related to pressure depletion may be alleviated. China, Australia, USA have been started to implement this technology for enhanced recovery of CBM gases.
CONCLUSIONS
CBM technology is proceeding with good space to prove itself as a cleaner energy security to India as well as the World. However, production strategy of methane from CBM is very much different from conventional gas reservoir. The study revealed that the coal type, rank, volatile matter and fixed carbon are strongly influence the adsorption capacity of methane into the coal bed. With increasing depth maturation of coal increases and generation of methane gas also increases. Gondwana basin as the most prospective CBM field is being developed now. From the studies, it is observed that Singareni coal field under Gondwana basin contains low gas. Hence, presently it is not considered for CBM extraction. However, in future this field may be considered for methane extraction using advanced technology and in emergency condition
http://www.ijcea.org/papers/113-A618.pdf
Q &A Format
What Is Coal Bed Methane?
Coal bed methane is a natural gas by-product of coal formation. During coal formation, organic matter is chemically broken down into simple organic compounds. Methane is a by-product of this breakdown.
Coal is very porous but lacks matrix permeability. In other words, water can seep into coal but can't flow through it. Naturally occurring fractures in coal allow ground water to permeate the coal and provide the means through which the methane is stored in the coal bed. Due to coal's porous nature, methane gas produced during coal formation is absorbed into the coal bed and held in place by the weight of the surrounding groundwater.
How Is Coal Bed Methane Extracted?
In order to commercially produce coal bed methane, it is necessary to decrease the water pressure within the coal bed. When the pressure is decreased, the methane gas naturally desorbs from the coal and migrates through the coal bed.
This natural phenomenon is the basis for coal bed methane production. In extracting methane from coal beds, a well is drilled down to the coal bed and the sides of the well are then encased in concrete. A water pump is dropped down into the coal bed and the top of the well is sealed with a venting pipe to collect the methane. Large amounts of groundwater are pumped out of the coal bed, causing a corresponding decrease in water pressure. The decreased water pressure allows the methane to escape from the coal and migrate along the coal fractures and up into the well. The methane is then pumped from the well through the venting pipe where it is compressed and sold.
What Are the Environmental Effects of Coal Bed Methane Extraction?
Water Depletion.
One of the environmental effects of coal bed methane extraction is the immense quantity of water pumped out of the coal bed aquifers. On average, approximately 12-15 gallons of water per minute are pumped from each well. During the initial phase of production, water is pumped at a very high rate. The extracted water is typically discharged into local streams or reinjected into the ground. Where the coal bed groundwater is relatively pure, surface discharge is the most common method of disposal. Smaller quantities are sometime stored in large pits for evaporation but this method is inefficient to deal with massive quantities of extracted groundwater. The removal and disposal of so much groundwater raises several concerns.
One concern is that drainage of a coal bed aquifer will cause shallower aquifers to drain into the cavity created by the coal bed water extraction. This is a particular concern for local landowners relying on well water pumped from shallow aquifers, which is often the case, as aquifers used for domestic water wells tend to be shallower than coal bed aquifers. In several reported cases, local water wells have gone dry after coal bed methane operations have begun.
A similar concern exists for coal bed aquifers that are tributaries to surface waters or adjacent groundwater aquifers, i.e., coal bed aquifers that contribute to other water sources. The drainage of tributary coal bed aquifers can cause a corresponding decline in the water levels of the contributory water sources. Consequently, water depletion from coal bed methane operations can have a significant impact on residents, farmers and businesses relying on affected water supplies.
Surface Water Discharge.
Because surface discharge is the most common disposal option for the extracted coal bed water,
the compositional characteristics of coal bed water can have a tremendous impact on the surrounding ecology. The quality of coal bed water varies considerably from well to well and basin to basin, but, on average, the deeper the coal bed, the more saline the water becomes. Other compositional elements typically seen in extracted coal bed water include:
Major Cations (positively charged ions such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, & calcium)
Major Anions (negatively charged ions such as chlorine, sulfate, & hydrogen carbonate)
Trace Elements & Metals (iron, manganese, barium, chromium, arsenic, selenium, & mercury)
Organics (hydrocarbons and additives).
The saline and sodic quality of coal bed water can have catastrophic impacts on local agriculture when discharged into local waterways. The moderate to high levels of salt in coal bed water can destroy soils and decrease crop production. The salts gather in the root base of plants, making it harder for the plants to extract water from the soil and inhibiting growth. As many farmers make use of stream and river diversion to water their crops and grazing fields, the surface discharge of coal bed water can negatively impact local agriculture.
Unlike salinity, which measures the quantity of dissolved salts in water, sodic water is measured by the proportion of sodium to calcium and magnesium. Sodic water interacts with fine soils, like clay, and results in the formation of a hard crust that severely impairs water and air permeation. Sodic water can cause a sharp decrease in the growth of crops and other vegetation.
Chemical & Radioactive Contamination.
Because coal bed methane extraction depends upon the natural fractures within the coal bed, gas companies routinely attempt to increase the extent of coal bed fracturing in order to boost methane production. Hydraulic fracturing is a technique used for this purpose. Hydraulic fracturing pumps a mixture of heavy chemicals, water, sand and/or other materials down an extraction well under extremely high pressure in order to achieve the desired fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing raises serious concerns because of the chemicals being used and their impact on the local ecology.
If the coal bed aquifer is tributary to surface water or other groundwater aquifers, chemical contamination can spread into domestic, agricultural, and industrial water supplies. Because hydraulic fracturing typically precedes the water extraction phase, much of the fracturing fluid will be pumped out of the aquifer along with the bulk of the groundwater. Where surface discharge is used to dispose of the extracted groundwater, the fracturing fluid is discharged along with the groundwater directly into local waterways, potentially contaminating water sources relied upon by local communities.
The types of chemicals used in fracturing fluids vary from company to company. In some states, companies are not required to disclose the chemicals used in their mining operations, so the extent of contamination is still unknown. Based on Material Safety Data Sheets obtained from several coal bed methane operators, many of the chemicals used are highly toxic, water soluble, volatile, and highly mobile-some are even radioactive.
Despite the fact that large amounts of hazardous chemicals are known to be injected directly into the coal bed aquifer, there is shockingly little oversight. Coal bed aquifers often contain potable or high-quality water and the injection of fracturing fluids into such water sources can permanently contaminate a viable source of water.
Conclusion
Coal bed methane production is a rapidly growing industry that will undoubted continue to expand under the nation's demand for alternative energy sources. Although global climate concerns have illustrated the need for the development of clean burning fossil fuels, coal bed methane production is not without its environmental hazards. Water depletion from coal bed methane production can adversely impact adjacent residents, farmers and businesses that rely on local groundwater and surface waters. The saline and sodic quality of coal bed water can inhibit plant growth when discharged into local waterways. Chemical contamination resulting from hydraulic fracturing poses a significant threat to domestic, agricultural, and industrial water supplies and anyone unfortunate enough to be exposed to such hazardous materials. While the use of cleaner energy sources must be encouraged, such development should not proceed to the detriment of local communities.
by Rahul Khairnar
References
http://www.brianmcmahonlaw.com/CM/Client-Bulletin/Client-Bulletin7.html
http://www.ijcea.org/papers/113-A618.pdf
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