Rural Unrest: An Outcome of Unmet Dues

Peasants did not disappear. Tribals could not be assimilated with the mainstream populace. Dalits continue to be the landless hewers of wood and drawers of water for the upper classes and castes. The projected trajectories of the development paradigm of large scale withdrawal of surplus labour from the rural areas to be absorbed in the massive development of the secondary and tertiary sectors had gone awry.

Fifty eight per cent of the Indian labour force is still engaged in agriculture and allied occupations. Tribals are being pushed up the hills because of illegal incursion of outsiders in their traditional domain. Dalits continue to swell the ranks of agricultural proletariat which is increasing in an alarming way. Neo-liberal development process totally by-passed them. Not only that the invasion of the corporate sector into agriculture and forestry and enhancement of ceiling limits on land in some states has exacerbated the incidence of landlessness with the consequential rise in the free floating mass of rural poor moving around in search of employment. This has depressing effect on rural wages and has aggravated casualisation of labour on terms grossly unfavourable to them. This is supported by different rounds of NSSO data on agricultural wage from 1983 to 2000.

Victims of development - the project affected people (PAP) - add another unpleasant dimension to the scenario of rural alienation and turmoil. There is no firm official figure regarding the total number of PAP rendered landless due to coercive acquisition of land by the State for "Development Purposes. Scholars have made various estimates. The generally accepted figure (calculated by Walter Fernandez) is that between 1951 and 2005, 50 to 60 million persons were forcefully evicted from their hearth and home. It is a colossal figure. Among the PAPs tribals constitute 40 per Cent. The absolute figure would be more than what is estimated.
It appears that the main brunt of the adverse effects of development had to be borne by the tribals who had the least sustaining power. Thus a vast number of displaced, homeless, landless and jobless tribals are roaming about as flotsam and jetsam of the cruel development process. They are depressed and dejected, irritated and angry Tribals did not have any concept of "exclusive title or possession within community. Ownership was best
understood as mutual respect and recognition of access of an individualor family to a separate plot of land to be
used for special requirement of the family
Extension of general laws and their accompanying institutions to the Scheduled Tribal areas created a hiatus between the "modem" laws and their agencies and the traditional mode of tribal life and living style. This resulted in a conflict between the traditional systems and the formal institutions, especially with regard to the rights of tribal people over land and resources on which they had subsisted for centuries without formal ownership deed or title.
Beginning with the colonial time and continuing in the post colonial era, the intrusion of formal economy with
privileged individual rights and individual or corporate profit motive has systematically undermined or subverted. The informal. Communitarian system of the tribals and their livelihood. This crisis has been further aggravated by the recent influx of individuals and corporate bodies into the tribal domain and their takeover of
tribal lands and other natural resourceswhich traditionally gave sustenance to
the tribals.

Tribals lost their control of traditional livelihood resources through several state actions.

* First is Forest Reservation Policy which declared forests, degradedforests, wastelands on the periphery and even partly arable ands as Reserved Forests where human habitation was prohibited. These, Reserved Areas sometimes included villages which were allowed to continue without any right or title and which supplied free or cheap labour to Forest Department and ) to forest personnel.


* Second means of alienation was the leasing of forest lands to the corporate sector for mining, processing industries, agro or forest based business, logging and timber felling or for tourism ventures. Tribals were denied access to pasture lands and forests which had been providing them means of livelihood.


* Thirdly there were the draconian laws related to Wildlife Protection and National Parks and Sanctuaries which forcefully excluded all habitations from vast areas notified under these laws.
By a sly of hand of the forest authorities local rightful residents became interlopers or encroachers on their own lands. The traumatic reversal of the position from rightful owner occupiers to illegal encroachers pushed the affected people to desperation to use any means to vent their resentment. In some places this deep human tragedy was compounded by the extinction of the species for which such cruel methods were used.


* Lastly, as already noted the coercive acquisition of land for "development" purposes has already displaced about 80 to 90 million tribals turning them into Homeless, Landless, Resource less and Jobless. It is not surprising; therefore, that Social Unrest has emerged in the affected areas. It manifests itself in defiance of the authority from simple form of demanding right of community management of forests to militancy.

The State cannot avoid the responsibility of creating conditions in which in sheer desperation and rage, tribals resorted to violence.

Half way across the globe in the Chiapas region of southern Mexico indigenous people declared in 1980---


* "We demand absolute respect for our communitarian self-determination over our lands, over all our natural resources and over the forms of organization that we wish to give ourselves We are opposed to have our natural resources plundered in the name of a supposed national development".

The demands of the Chiapas indigenous people in Mexico fully represent the aspiration and demands of 80 million tribals of our country as well.

Our old national leadership was well aware of it. Way back in 1942 Mahatma Gandhi wrote in his news journal Harijan (18-01-1942) ---


* "The Adivasis are the original inhabitants whose material position is perhaps; do better than that of Harijans and who have been victims of neglect on the part of so called high classes. The Adivasis should have found a special place in the constructive programme" (Gandhi, M.K. - India of my Dreams, Navjivan Trust, 1947).

Only Mahatma could have the moral courage during the freedom struggle to own up that the society had neglected the Adivasis. It is not therefore strange to find in the Party Programme of Central Committee (P) of CPI (Maoist) - dated 21.092004, the observation that---


* "The State will ensure various forms of autonomy to all Adivasi communities for their full fledged development and execute special policies accordingly".

Common Property Resources (CPR) where every member of the community had easy access and usage facility used to be an integral part of the social and economic life of the village poor, particularly for the landless and land poor households. Among the landless vast majority belonged to Dalit groups. Some scholarly studies have pointed out that Dalits are concentrated among the landless agricultural labourers because under the traditional caste system they were excluded from ownership of land. Consequently for sheer survival they had to depend heavily on the CPR.

A study of seven states in semi-arid areas indicated that CPR accounted for 9 to 26 per cent of household income of landless and marginal farmers, 91 to 100 per cent of their fuel wood requirements and 69 to 89 per cent of their grazing needs.

However, this CPR is getting increasingly scarce through state possession or privatization including corporatization. In different states corporatizations are being given huge tracts of so called Wasteland, Degraded forest land and Semi-arable lands which constituted CPR for the Dalits and the village poor.
This has badly affected the economic positions of these people.
Neo-liberalism has put the Dalit and agricultural workers under Triple Jeopardy of Social, Economic and Political exclusion.
Exasperated and desperate Dalit groups constitute the tinder dry flammable substance awaiting a spark to ignite.

The overall employment situation in the rural areas is rather bleak. The primary sector employed roughly 58 per cent of the total labour force. Development of secondary and tertiary sectors could not absorb the surplus labour from the primary sector. It is now recognized that in the era of "Jobless Growth" the organised sector's capacity to absorb surplus labour would remain minimal to nil. As a result under compulsion of circumstances the vast majority of additional labour force will have to be absorbed both in the farm and non-farm segments of the rural economy and in the unorganised segment in the urban areas.
It would have several adverse consequences.

* This large army of landless workers would tend to depress rural wage rates thereby accentuating poverty as already mentioned. It would also increase the number tenancies with harsh and extortionate conditions and terms. Extremely severe forms of exploitation are noticed in respect of these "invisible" tenancies.
Expropriation of CPR for handing over the land to corporate sector for agri-business or industry has caused depeasantization among the farming communities and accentuated immiserisation of already poor landless and marginal farmers most of whom belongs to dalit groups.

* Depeasantisation directly increases Landlessness and acute poverty coupled with Assetlessness results in debt bondage.
Active encouragement of the state for "contract farming" is putting, self employed autonomous peasants under harsh and often disadvantageous contracts. Incidentally, the protagonists of this move in the State machinery should do well to remember that about 90 years ago in 1917, Mahatma Gandhi's first public action in India after coming from South Africa was to , fight for the cause of peasants of Champaran in Bihar against unfair terms of contract imposed on them by the European Indigo planters.

Advocates of this system should also appreciate that between two unequal partners there cannot he any fair contract in favour of the weak. Land ceiling laws have been implemented in a tardy and improper manner in our country. Even distribution was not done, correctly. In many cases beneficiaries with "patta" in land did not get physical possession of the land allotted to them. Old owners continued to possess and enjoy the usufruct of these lands. Worse still are the cases of the same vested land being distributed to different sets of beneficiaries at different points of time, of course, giving no physical possession to anyone of them. It only made the poor to fight the poor so that the erstwhile landlords could lord over their former estates.
Land holdings after several decades of implementation of ceiling laws still remain highly skewed. In 1995 tiny holdings constituted 78 per cent of the total operational holding and commanded 32 per cent of the area.Thus 22 per cent of operational holding controlled 68 per cent of the arable land. While figures clearly justify further reduction of land ceiling and rationalization of various categories of land for ceiling purposes.
Under the pressure of neoliberal economic policies different states are doing the opposite by enhancing the ceiling limits in the name of commercialization and modernization of agriculture. Thus the possibility of getting a parcel of land by the landless for minimal livelihood and household food security is becoming dimmer by the day.
Apparently, in different' parts of the country' in different depressed and oppressed groups, there are kegs of dry
powder waiting for fire to set in. But the flaming bush fire is not taking place as there is a lack of country-wide political mobilization among the landless and the deprived. Instead of being united on the .basis of class, the poor are fragmented along caste, ethnic, religious and other divisive lines. Moreover, land struggle tend to differ for different interest groups. Landless strive for land ownership. Tribals and indigenous groups strive for the protection of their traditional righfs on forest and other livelihood resources. Marginal and small farmers strive not only to retain their land but also to make it more productive and to acquire and, or, to enhance their political power and influence. Thus with disaffection all around there being no coalescing of interests and objectives, no combined determined movement was possible to seriously threaten the establishment. In an agrarian economy like India land confers personality to all individual or a group. It endows social respectability. It is a means of political empowerment. It is the basic ingredient of a dignified life and living. Hence a just and fair distribution of land resources is of utmost importance for building n egalitarian and strife - free society. It is for the state to arrange for equitable redistribution of hind and water resources and to restore the traditional livelihood rights of the tribals in the forest areas. Unmet just demands may provoke the sufferers to use force whether for occupation of land or for exercising rights over forestry resources. The ruling establishment cannot avoid taking responsibility for its failure to read the writing on the wall.

Another major cause of rural discontent is the trident of malicious governance by the Forest, Revenue and the Police administration. Rajiv Gandhi pithily described the situation---


* He observed "the experience of the vast majority of our people at the grassroots have been that, at the interface between the people and the administration, the administration is unresponsive, inefficient, unsympathetic, often callous, sometimes even cruel to those whom they meant to serve".

The situation is far worse in the tribal areas what we are witnessing in India and some Latin American countries in the form of rural land movement of violent nature is basically the "third wave" or left politics. When the agrarian crisis is becoming more acute, there is a deepening of political vacuum in the country side.

Traditional parties of the left which had a rather nebulous relationship with the dispossessed in the countryside have, by and large, succumbed to the logic of capital either to obtain power or after obtaining power, eschewing Marxian Left policies, though many of them still carry the name of Marx in their breast plates. They are openly and unashamedly promoting neo-liberalism in its crude form discarding even the fig leaf of egalitarianism not to speak of socialism. The "third wave" of virulent left politics is the direct result of the traditional left's subservience to the needs of capital exhibited through their adherence to the neo-liberal economic reform policies.

The social base or this new movement which includes the Maoists of India, is the masses of rural poor fallen by the wayside because of relentless pursuit of, neo-liberal economic policies. Its leadership is largely confined among the Peasant intellectuals who have disassociated themselves from the established political parties and their university based intellectuals. Their tactic is, predominantly direct action centering round direct physical occupation of land and other natural resources. Some of them have opted for armed struggle like the CPI (Maoist) in India, Zapatistas in Mexico and the FARC in Colombia.

Their strategy is autonomy from the established political parties and the state. This line is being followed by the rural movement in the Philippines, India (CPI-Maoist), South Africa, the Zapatistas in Mexico and MST in Brazil. Their ideology tends to fuse Marxism with the local brand of ethnic or racial discourses. They are quite
sensitive to gender and ecological issues. In fact there is a conscious effort to indigenize the Marxian theory to the specific local situation.

Long ago Mao Zedong propounded' the 'thesis of "Fish in Water".
"Fish" were rural militants. Disgruntled disaffected and resentful poor peasantry, agricultural workers, forest dwellers, displaced persons and the like constituted the "Water". If their disaffection could be removed or substantially reduced water would evaporate and the fish would be left high and dry and they would cease to exist eventually. Since almost all the demands and grievances of the tribals, Dalits, landless agricultural workers and the like could be met and resolved' within the parameters of the Constitution and existing legal and policy frame, a responsive and sympathetic political leadership at different levels can solve the issue of rural unrest if they had the will and if they could transcend their proximate class interests. The smouldering ember of rural unrest in India can be doused by proper action undertaken with understanding and sympathy, dialogue and reasoning. Harsh counter violence might not be the correct response as it had failed so far during the last four decades since The Spring of Thunder in 1967.

Ankur Sachan

GS 2: Distribution of key natural resources across world (including

GS 2: Distribution of key natural resources across world (including South Asia and Indian)

Prologue: Collect information from misc sources, can't mention all of them here. I just collect them in this single article. I am not saying that this information is sufficient, but I hope it will helpful.

Lets start with small introduction :

What are natural resources?

-material and component formed within environment
or. any matter or energy derived from environment, used by living things.
Everthing occur naturally on earth are natural resources i.e. minerals, land, water, soil, wind. which can be used in many ways by human being.

Classification:

On the basis of renewability :
1. Renewable resources : eg - sunlight, air, water
2. Non- Renewable resources. eg- coal , petroleum

On the basis of "stage of development":
1. Potential resources : exist in a region and may be used later . eg - petroleum, water- we have to use water for producing electricity i.e. water is a potential resource to produce electricity.
2. Actual resources: Can be surveyed, their quality and quantity can be determined. eg- wood processing depends on technology available and the cost involved
3. Reserve resources: part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in the future
4. Stock Resources : that have been surveyed but cannot be used due to lack of technology.
eg- hydrogen

On the basis of origin:
1. Biotic : obtained from biosphere , such as forest, living and organic material. eg- coal, petroleum
2. Abiotic : come from non-living material, such as from land. eg- iron-ore, gold, copper.


Mineral resources:
Classification:


(in this article I will explain only metallic minerals. I'll explain non-metallic minerals and energy resources in separate articles)
A. Ferrous minerals :
-that have iron content
B. Non Ferrous minerals:
- no iron content.
Ferrous Metals


* IRON ORE:
Not found in pure form, it contain lime, magnesium, phosphorus, silica, sulphur and copper. It means if X place have iron ore then some of/or all of these 6 friends should be there.
First let us discuss types of iron ore. There are 4 types :


TypesIron content (in %)Features

1. Haematite(red-ochre)60-70 - also known as "oxide of iron"-massive, hard, compact and lumpy ore.-color : reddish or coral-red

2. Magnetite60-65- also known as "black ore"-color : obvious, black.

3. Limonite 35-50-also known as "hydrated iron-oxide"-color: yellow

4.Siderite 10-40- not economically extracted.


Distribution in world :
Major producers of iron ore and their share (acc to U S geological survey, 2010)
1. China : 34.5%
2. Brazil: 15.4%
3. Australia: 17.5%
4. India: 10.8%
5. Russia : 4.1%
Major iron ore mines are already explained in mrunal sir's article on "factors responsible for industries"
Other countries in which iron ore mines are present, but small amount of iron ore extracted from them : -
-Ukraine, south Africa, US, Canada, Iran, Sweden, Kazakhistan, Venezuela, Mexico, Mauritania, Chile, Peru, North Korea, Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria, Algeria, Egypt, New Zealand, Mongolia, Japan, Malaysia etc.

* MANGANESE:
Features/Uses:
- in manufacturing of iron and steel (used as raw material for smelting of iron), bleaching powder, insecticides, pesticides, paints, dry batteries, photography etc.
-Zimbabwe has the largest reserves of manganese, followed by India.
Major producers:

Country States in which mines are present

BrazilAmapaSerra Do Nario Mine : Largest producer and exporter of Manganese ore since 1957

Minas Gerais Marro Da Mina mine

ParaAzul and Buritirama Deposits In Carajas iron district

Mato Grosso Do SulCorumba District

South AfricaNorthern CapeConcentrated in Kalahari Manganese fields: Black rock mine, Gloria mine, Middleplaats mine, Mamatwan mine

North-West AfricaOnly one mine present here.

Gabon- The high-grade manganese deposits atMoanda, nearFranceville

China -in Liaoning, Hunan and Guangxi

Mexico-before 1960: Autlan deposit in Jalisco was major producer, but depleted in 1960's. -after 1960 : Molango deposits are major producers and put into production in 1968.

Ukraine-in Khersons'ka


Other countries : China, Mexico, Ukraine.

Non-Ferrous metals

* COPPER :
Features/uses:
-Highly ductile, strong and good conductor of electricity.
-Uses: in electrical machinery, automobile, stainless steel.
-Main alloys - Copper+zinc=brass & copper+tin=bronze.

Leading producers:

Countries States in which mines are present

Chile-Antofagasta mines : 5th largest producer of copper in the world.-copper mines are present in almost all states of chile.-Arica & Parinacota, Tarapaca, Antofagasta, Antacama, Blobia.

China- Jiangxi : Leading producer- Jiangxi Copper corp. -In Sinchua, Yunnan, Gansu, Jilin, Taiwan.

Peru-Leading producer : CMA's Antamina mine. -States where mines exists: Cajamarca, Apurimac, Cusco, Arequipa, Moquegua, Tanca.

US-found in Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Connecticut, Maine., Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, Wyoming

Australia-States : Queensland (large no of mines found here), South Australia (Olympic Dam mine), Tasmania, Northern Territory, New South Wales.

Russia- Northwestern :in Murmansk- Volgo: in Kirov-Siberian: in Irkutsk Oblast and Kraenoyarsk

Zambia-North Western Zambia, Copperbelt.

Congo-at boundary of Niari and Kouilou

Canada-British Columbia, Ontario, New Brusnswick

Mexico-Sonora, Zacatecas, Baja, California Sur.

Norway-Nordland ,Oppland.


Other countries which produce copper in small amount are : Bolivia and Norway.

* GOLD
Occurence :
- also foundworld'soceans: Atlantic and Northeast Pacific
Features/uses:
-high density, most malleable.
- ued in making or jewelry, for monetary exchanges, in medicines, food, electronics, in commercial industries (eg :in cynaide process. )

Major producers:

CountryStates in which mines are present

China-in Shandong, Henan, Fujian, Liaoning, Guizhou, Yunan

Australia-Northern Territory, Western Australia

US-Reed farminNorth Carolina, Virginia, California, Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Maryland, Michigan , Montano, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wyoming, Moraine gold

Russia-Siberain (in Kraenoyarsk), Irkutsk Oblast, Buryatia, Chukotka, Sakha, Magaden, Amur, Chechnya.

South Africa-Western cape, eastern Transvaal

Peru-Ucayali, Madre De Dios, Arequipa, Ayacucho, San Martin

Canada-In British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario (most of the reserves present here), Nova Scotia.

Ghana-Western Ghana(major reserves), Ashanti.

Indonesia-Grasberg: largest mine in world, in Papua.

Uzbekistan-Nawaoiy


Other countries where gold deposits are present : South Korea (in Chungcheong Namdo) , Egypt (in El Bahr El Ahmar), Congo (in Kouilou), Bolivia (in Pando, La Paz, Beni, Santa Cruz, Cochabamba), Brazil (in Ampa, Para, Mato Grosso, Ceara, Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo).



* SILVER
Occurence:
- Silver is found in native form, as an alloy with gold
Features/uses:
- veryductile,malleable(slightly harder thangold),monovalentcoinage metal
-highestelectrical conductivity, has the highestthermal conductivity, one of the highest opticalreflectivities
-used for making currency and jewelry , in manufacturing of chemicals, electroplating, photography, coloring of glasses, also used by dentists, in making or mirrors and optics.


CountryStates in which mines are present

Australia-Queensland

Russia-Kraenoyarsk, Magadan, Sabha, Zabaykalsky Krai.

Peru-La Libertad, Tacna, Ayacucho

Argentina-Jujuy, Chubut, Neuquen

Mexico-Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Zacatecas, Pachuca, Guanauato

Bolivia-La Paz, Qruro, Potosi

Poland

Chile-Antofagasta, Valaparaiso.

US-Alaska, Arizona,California, Colorado,Idaho, Missouri,Montana,Nevada,New Hampshire,New Mexico,North Carolina,Oklahoma,Oregon, Pennsylvania,Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington


Other countries : South Africa (in Northern Cap), South Korea ( Gyeonggi-Do)



* LEAD
Occurence :
-found in thesolar atmosphere, and much more abundantly in the atmospheres of somehot subdwarfs
-Metallic lead is very rare occur in nature. Obtained from galena, which is found in association with limestone, sandstone and calcareous slates.
-usually found inorewithzinc,silverand (most abundantly)copper

Features/Uses :
i. Heavy metal, malleable, soft and bad conductor of heat and electricity, high resistance to corrosion, ability to react with organic chemicals.
ii. used in alloys , cable cover, type-writers, lead-sheeting, ammunition, paints, glass making, paints making, automobiles, aeroplanes, calculating machines, printing and rubber industries.

Leading producers :

CountryStates in which mines are present

Australia-New South Wales, Tasmania, Queensland.

US-Idaho, Arizona, Alaska, Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma.

China-Yunna.

Canada-New Brunswick, Yukon, Nunavut, Ontario, British Columbia

Mexico-Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Zacatecas

Morocco-Nador, Figuig, Khenitra, Marrarech.

Peru-La Libertad, Cusco, Huanc Avelica.

South Africa- Northern Cape

North Korea-South Hamgyong Province, Ryanggang Province


Other countries: South Korea (Busan, Chunhcheong Namdo, Ganguon-Do, Gyeongci-Do), Spain(Castile & leon, Andalusia, Argon, Region DE Murcia), Chile (Los Lagos), Brazil (Bahia), Congo (Kouilou), Kazakhistan(Toldyqorghan, Shyghys Qazaqstan, Kzzylorda, Qaraghandy), Russia (Rostov, Perm, Altai, Primorsky)




* URANIUM
Occurence:
- found in low levels within all rock, soil, and water
- highest-numbered element to be found naturally in significant quantities on Earth and is almost always found combined with other elements
Features/Uses:
i. silvery-white + very highdensity + weakly radioactivemetal, which is harder thanmost elements
ii. Can react with almost all non-metallic elements and produce heat.
iii. Used in nuclear reactors + also used for tinting and shading in early photography
Some major producers :

CountryStates in which mines are present

Kazakhistan-Suzak, Jambyl, Qyzylorda, Aqmola, Pavlodarskaya Oblast, Aqtobe, Qaraghandy

Australia- has 31% world's reserves : Olympic DamMine in South Australia.

Canada-Saskatchewan: Athabasca Basin

Namibia-Arandis,Namib desert in western Nambia, Swakopmund,

Niger-Akokan, Arlit, Agadez

Russia-Stavropol, Buryatia


Some other countries : US, Ukrain, China, Uzbekistan


* CHROMITE
Occurence:

- Chromite is found inperidotitefrom the Earth'smantle
- occurs inlayeredultramaficintrusive rocks
-also found in metamorphic rocks such as someserpentinites.
-Oredeposits of chromite form as early magmatic differentiates.

Feature:
- is an Oxide of iron and manganese.
- Used in metallurgical and chemical industries.
- Alloy ingredient instainlessandtool steels.

Leading Producers:
-South Africa, India, Kazakhistan, Zimbabwe, Finland, Iran and Brazil.
-Biggest user of chromite : China , importing from S.Africa, Pakistan and other countries.


CountryStates in which mines are present

South Africa- World's largest producer.-Bushveld igneous complex: have very large deposites of chromite -in Eastern BIC, in the Steelpoort Valley.

Kazakhistan-2nd largest-Aqtoke

Zimbabwe-Tarastan

Finland-Lapland, Satakunta

Iran-Razavi Khorasan, Kerman

Brazil-Minas Gerais, Bahia


Minor producers: Afghanistan (Khost Province) , Pakistan (khanozai in Balochistan), Australia (Pilbararegion ofWestern Australia).


* ZINC
Occurence :
-found in association with lead and silver.
Features/uses :
i. Hard and brittle, fair conductr of electricity, low melting point and boiling point.
ii. used for alloying and for manufacturing galvanised sheets.
iii. also used for dry-battries, white pigments, electrodes, textiles, die-casting, rubber industry and for making collapsible tubes, containing drugs, and pastes.


Leading Producers:

CountryStates in which mines are present

China-Yunnan, Hunan

US-Colorado, New Jersey, Northern California, Arizona, Alaska, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma,

Bolivia-La Paz, Potosi, Chuquisaca

Mexico- Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Zacatecas

Australia-New South Wales, Tasmania, Queensland.

Canada-Saskatchewan, Manitora, New Branswick

Russia-Primorsky, Altai, Volgograd, Sverdlovsk

Kazakhistan-Shyghys Qazaqstan, Qaraghandy, Taldyqorghan, Kyzylorda

North Korea-Piyongan Bukto, Hwanghae Namido, Hwanghae-Bukto, Kangwon-Do, Hamgyong-Namdo, Hamgyong Bukto, Kangwon-Do.

Peru-Ayacucho, Cusco, ICA


Other countries : South Africa (Kwazulu-Natal) , Spain (Principado De Asturias, Castile and Leon, Comunidad Valencia), Argentia (Jujuy, Santa Fe)




* TUNGSTEN
Occurence :
-obtained from wolfram ore.
Features/uses:
- self hardening mineral, hence used in steel industries, manufacturing of ammunition, armour plates, heavy guns, hard cutting tools.
Leading producers:

CountryStates in which mines are present

China-leading producer.-Guangdong

Russia-Primorsky, Buryatia, Altai

Canada-Toronto, New Brunswick, Yukon, Northwest territory,

Bolivia-La Paz, Potosi

Austria-Salzburg

Thailand-Chiang Mai, Lampang, Kanchanaburi, Nakhon Si Thammarat

Brazil- Currais Novos in Northeastern Brazil

Peru-Puno, Junin

Portugal-Viseu


Other countries : Australia (BassStrait), South Korea (Ganguon-Do, Gyeongsany-Bukdo, Gyeongsang Namdo), North Korea(Kangwan-Do, Hwanghae Bukto, Piyongang Namdo)


* BAUXITE
Occurence:
- The early discovered carbonate bauxites occur predominantly inEuropeandJamaicaabovecarbonate rocks(limestoneanddolomite), where they were formed by lateriticweatheringand residual accumulation of intercalatedclaysor by clay dissolution residues of the limestone.
-mostly found in countries of tropics
-formed bylateritizationof varioussilicate rockssuch asgranite,gneiss,basalt,syenite, andshale

Features/Uses:
- main source of aluminium.

Major producers:


CountryStates in which mines are present

Australia-top producer.-Western Australia, Northern Territory, Queensland

Russia-Karelia, Perm

Brazil-Para, Maranhao, Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais.

Australia-Western australia, Northern territory, Queensland.

Vietnam-Binh Phuoc, Gia Lai

Jamaica-Trelawny, Saint Ann, Saint Elizabeth, Manchestor, Clarendon, Saint Catherine, Saint Kingston, Saint James, Portland

Guinea- Boke, Kindia

Ghana-Western Ghana


Other country : Kazakhistan (Kostanay)






Distribution in India

(Only Overview, as you can find in detail in Majid and Ncert)

Mineral belts of India:
1. The Chotanagpur Belt:
-stretches over Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Odisha, Bihar and West Bengal
-rich in : coal, mica, manganese, bauxite, iron, uranium phosphate, copper, dolomite, china-clay and limestone.
-Important mineral producing districts:
a. Jharkhand: Dhanbad, Hazaribagh, Palamu, Santhal-Pargana, Singhbhum.
b. Odisha: Cuttack, Dhankenal, Kendujhar, Koratput, Mayurbhanj, Sambhalpur, Sundargarh.
c. West Bengal : Bankura, Birbhum, Medinipur, Purulia.

2. Midland Belt:
-Chattisgarh, MP, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
-Rich in: manganese ore, bauxite, mica, copper, graphite, limestone, lignite, marble.

3. The Southern belt:
-Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
-rich in : gold, iron ore, chromite, manganese, lignite, mica, bauxite, gypsum, asbestos, dolomite, ilmenite, china-clay, limestone.

4. The Western belt:
-Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
-Rich in: copper, lead, zinc, uranium, mica, manganese, salt, asbestos, precious stones, building stones, mineral oil and natural gas.

5. The Southern-Western belt:
-Goa, Karnataka, Kerala.
-Rich in: iron ore, ilmenite, zircon, monazite sands, garnet, china-clay, bauxite, mica, limestone and soapstone.

6. The Himalayan belt:
-poor in metallic minerals
-minerals found in small quantity: copper, lead, zinc, bismuth, bauxite, antimony, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, precious stone, gold, silver, gypsum, limestone and dolomite.

7. The Indian Ocean:
-Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are rich in mineral oil and natural gas.
-Also contain: manganese, phosphate, barium, aluminum, silicon, iron, titanium, sodium, potassium, chromium, monazite, ilmenite, magnetite, garnet.


Mineral States in which mines are present

Iron-ore -Karnataka, Odisha, Chattisgarh, Goa, Jharkhand

Manganese-Odisha, Maharashtra, MP, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh

Copper-MP, Rajasthan, Jharkhand

Chromite-Odisha, Karnataka, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh

Uranium-Jharkhand

Lead-Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, MP, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, West Bengal

Zinc-Rajasthan, Sikkim, Jammu, Bihar, MP, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya, Kashmir

Tungsten-Rajasthan , West Bengal, Maharashtra, Mysore, Gujarat, Jharkhand

Bauxite-Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Bihar, Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, Tamil Nadu, MP

Gold- Rajasthan , West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh

Silver- Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh

Name: Nisha Vats