Science and religion are commonly perceived to be mutually exclusive-a contradiction in terms, as it were. Both the method and the aims of science and religion seem to be different. While Science is linked to the material, religion is concerned with the spiritual. On the face of it the scope, sphere and the method of science and religion are different and exclude each other. Science is objective while Religion is subjective; Science relies on experiment, Religion on experience.
Science deals with the world that we know, the material world that is comprehended by the senses; religion is concerned with a supra-mundane world, a world that we cannot be said to know. Science believes in things that can be proved; religion is pre occupied with ideas that have to be accepted without proof. Science depends on reasons; religion on intuition. The scientist works in the laboratory of the material world; the religious teacher works within the recesses of his personal experiences. Religion begins where science ends. Science says that the first cause is unknowable. Religion says that it can be known through the discipline of religion, for it is God who is not only self existent but self revealed. Hence, there is bound to be hostility between the man of science and the man of religion. Science end when matter ends. Over the ages the conflict has developed between science and religion. But science does not have the answer of everything. Science without religion gives rise to materialism and other ills of life.
As the words experience and experiment connote, the worlds of religion and science are pole apart. Science is concerned with how of reality whereas religion is concerned with the why of reality. Science takes up the tangible entities and analyses them into their minutest parts, and then comes to conclusions regarding the way in which tangible realities are organized. In brief, Science is analytical. On the other hand, Religion takes for granted the reality. The path of religion is metaphysical. The rationalists of religion pursuing the path of metaphysics postulate the concept of God: But even then, at the highest level religious consciousness, the concept of God is a matter of faith. This faith enables the religious man to attribute a design or meaning to the reality. Thus, Science is analytical in approach whereas Religion is synthetical.
Religion is subjective, as religious enlightenment has to be felt by once own experience. Unless and until religious experience is felt by an individual himself, he cannot reap any pleasure out of it. The morale and religious rule are allied and have to be followed by individuals in appropriate ethical situations. Science, on the other hand, deals with the objective side of the life. Scientific discoveries are common properties. They are open to common man and not shrouded in mystery or haziness. They are truths, universally accepted and subject to scientific calculations. A systematic scholarship and concentration is needed to get at scientific truths which are subsequently tested and approved by hypothesis and experiment.
But so long as scientific knowledge is imperfect, the place of religion and God will continue to be highly relevant. So long as scientific theories do not reach perfections, humans have to fall back upon their own reasoning and secondary powers of their own sole and spirit. In this sense, Science and Religion actually converge. Both scientist and saints have to undertake solitary travels into the regions unknown and to depend on themselves only and nobody else. But once a line is drawn between them, their ways bifurcate and takes separate routes. Religious truths remain essentially the properties of the individuals who experience and realize them through their own inward soul and mind and not through external manifestation of things which have a physical behavior. Scientific truths, on the other hand, become the property of the whole world and goes out to inflate the store house of the human knowledge.
Religion is perhaps as old as mankind. Even in the earliest times man had some idea of the higher power, a superior unknowable force prevailing and controlling the universe. Science is of more recent growth. Earliest phases of science may not be more than four or five thousand years old, while modern science began only in the 15th century.
The conflict between science and religion shows how truth has to suffer in order to establish its claims. Pioneers of science had to face numerous difficulties. Galileo, for instance, was thrown into prison for his new theories about heavenly bodies. No better was the fate of Copernicus who pointed out that it is the earth which moves around the sun. In the nineteenth century Darwins Theory of Evolution gave rise to angry opposition from the Christian Church, since his theories cut across the biblical version of the creation of mankind from Adam and Eve. But truth eventually prevailed and science held its ground. Before the nineteenth century had run its course, the triumph of science was complete.
The rapid progress of science changed the face of the world beyond recognition. It conferred unheard of comforts and conveniences on mankind. The wonders of Science bewildered man and he began to enjoy numerous blessings in life. Religion seemed to be unnecessary and began to lose the respect and power it had once enjoyed.
But the path of science did not ultimately proved as smooth as its worshippers had thought it to be. It turned out to be a mixed blessing. It did provide bodily comforts, but at the cost of mans moral and spiritual development. It ruined man into a sceptic, a creature without any faith and lofty ideals to inspire and guide him. The loss of such faith brought the baser side of his nature into freeplay. Man became dishonest, selfish and proud. It destroyed mans simple faith, fellow feeling, affection and kindness. Besides, the blessing of science gave rise to new social problems. The gulf between the rich and the poor became wide then ever before. The widespread use of machinery subjected millions of human beins to the evils of economic expoitations, unemployment, crowded congested cities and the growth of slums. The average worker lost his
independence and happiness and was reduced with the position of mere clog in the vast organization of modern industry.
Thus, we notice that there is no anti thesis worth speaking between the two all through the ages. Besides, intuition plays a vital role in the apprehension of God or in any religious belief. Similarly, great scientists never plans what he is about to discover.
The conflict between science and religion is superficial. There approach towards life is , ofcourse different but their goal is the same. Science follows the path of reason and intellect, religion travels the road of faith and belief. But both aim at the discovery of the truth. Science and religion have apparently different aims and objects, yet in fact they are closely related and act an react on each other.
Science and religion, the two terms have come to signify a contradiction in terms. On the face of it, it seems difficult to find a compromise between science and religion, for their scope is different and excludes each other.
References:
Frontline(Oct 4th, 2013)
A Compendium of Essays (J K Chopra)
www.sacred-texts.com
www.wikipedia.com
Ravi Sharma,
Showing posts with label line. Show all posts
Showing posts with label line. Show all posts
Monday, January 13, 2014
Poverty Line and its estimation methodology
The Planning Commission estimates levels of poverty on the basis of consumer expendituresurveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO).
History: 1. Pre independence poverty estimates:
* First of all done by Dada bhai naroji. His method was based on cost of subsistence diet i.e rice or flour, dhal, mutton, vegetables, ghee, vegetable oil and salt.
* Next, in 1938, the National Planning Committee Like the earlier method, they also formulated poverty line based on a minimum standard of living.
2. Post independence poverty estimates:
* In 1962, the Planning Commission constituted a working groupto estimate poverty nationally, and it formulated separate poverty lines for rural and urban areas of Rs 20 and Rs 25 per capita per year respectively. (numbers not imp)
* In 1971 VM Dandekar and N Rath made the first systematic assessment of poverty in India, based on National Sample Survey (NSS) data from 1960-61.First time the concept of poverty on basis of calorie consumption was brought to lime light. Their poverty line was to be derived from the expenditure that was adequate to provide 2250 calories per day in both rural and urban areas. Shortcoming: The consumption requirement for male female and urban rural labour is completely different from one another.
* Alagh Committee (1979): In 1979, seprated both poverty lines and calorie consumption based on rural and urban requirements.For subsequent years Poverty Lines were to be calculated in accordance with inflation.
Rural2400 cal Rs 49
Urban2100 cal Rs 56
* Lakdawala Committee (1993): Added more features and made above more efficient(i) consumption expenditure based on calorie consumption as earlier;(ii) first time state specific poverty lines were constructed and these were to updated using CPI-IW (industrial worker) in urban areas and CPI-AL (agri labour) in rural areas. Meaning : PL for all states separately and for country also. This assumes that the basket of goods and services used to calculate CPI-IW and CPI-AL reflect the consumption patterns of the poor.
* Tendulkar Committee (2009): Most recent and most controversial one.Shortcomings in previous methods such as:a) consumption patterns were linked to the 1973-74 poverty line baskets (PLBs) of goods and services but the choice of consumption patter has been completely changed since then.b) Poverty was estimated according to inflation but we know inflation does not affect the food products uniformly across the nation. E.g. In the season of apples they are available at cheap cost in J&K and are expensive in Tamil Nadu no matter what is the WPI or CPI. So inflation does not reflect the ground realityc) earlier poverty lines assumed that health and education would be provided by the State. So education and health were not included in the basic requirement basket.Recommendations:
* A shift away from calorie consumption based poverty estimation i.e not on calorie consumed but the money spent for various items including food, clothing etc (details are given below) . (ii) A uniform poverty line basket (PLB) in both rural and urban India i.e. same items of basic requirement for rural as well as urban population.(iii) A change in the price adjustment procedure to correct spatial and temporal issues with price adjustment like explained above in point (b).(iv) Incorporation of expenditure on health and education while estimating poverty.
Mixed Reference Period (MRP): five low-frequency items (clothing, footwear, durables, education and institutional health expenditure) are surveyed over the previous 365 days, and all other items over the previous 30 days.Uniform Reference Period (URP): detail consumption over the previous 30 days includes all above but this is limited only to one month.
* (v) Also continued with the adjustment of PL on basis of CPI-AL for rural and CPI-IW for urban poor.(vi) Use Mixed Reference Period (MRP) based estimates, as opposed to Uniform Reference Period (URP) based estimates that were used in earlier methods for estimating poverty.
Estimation of poverty line method:How much money is spent for the items mentioned above by those who were under PL (Poverty Line) before tendulkar (according to lakadwalas estimation). On its basis they came to conclusion that poverty line was Rs. 446 per capita and Rs. 578 per capita for rural and urban respectively for 2005-06. Remember that his estimation was not based on Calorie consumption.
Poverty line basket by Tendulkar:
Cereal, pulses, milk, edible oil, non-vegetarian items, vegetables, fresh fruits, dry fruits, sugar, salt & spices, other food, intoxicants, fuel, clothing, footwear, education, medical (non-institutional and institutional), entertainment, personal & toilet goods, other goods, other services and durables
Controversy:1. According to planning commission 2100 calorie for urban and 2200 calorie for rural is sufficient to be above the poverty line.2. Basket suggested by tendulkar is same as 1971 with just minor changes here and there.3. Like we know almost all basic utilities has been privatised by govt. So electricity, water, education, health care all is becoming expensive. These all are absolutely indispensible. No one can avoid these for only food. This factor was not counted by tendulkar.4. Even in present day the priority of an individual has been changed. He can cut on his food but has to travel for his daily work. With petrol prices rising to sky limits the fare cost have also risen but it is also not mentioned in any recommendation.5. Estimation of Planning commission is also based on world banks estimation which says that $1.25 is sufficient for daily use by an individual. This one is even more frivolous than others because consumption pattern cannot be same all around the world. Reasons: purchasing power parity and diversity in choice of consumption across the globe. Fluctuations in exchange rate also. Planning Commission's declaration that anyone who spends more thanRs.33.33 in a day in urban areas andRs.27.20 a day in rural areas is above the poverty line is based on World Banks $1.25 per capita per day method.6. Adjustment of poverty line according to inflation is far from reality. IF so then the salary of the Govt employees shall only be increased with Dearness allowances.But every decade a new Pay commission is constituted to completely change the whole structure of salaries to reflect the actual change in priority and consumption pattern. E.g. before 1990s the expenditure was only limited to Roti Kapda aur makaan, but now we need laptops and Smart phones too.7. Such unrealistic Poverty estimations will further exclude the deserving poor out of the ambit of PDS and will further the poverty and worsens the living conditions of poor of our country.8. As Tendulkar has recommended that there shall be same basket for both rural as well as urban poor is not practical. E.g. a poor lad in village needs to spend lesson on travelling than an urban manual labour that need to travel from slums to construction sites. A village inhabitant spends less on milk or grains but urban poor has to spend more. Rural labour being more intensive needs more calories than urban etc. Same size shoe does not fit all.Rangarajan Committee: In 2012, the Planning Commission constituted a newexpert panelon poverty estimation, chaired by C Rangarajan with the following key objectives: (i) to provide an alternate method to estimate poverty levels and examine whether poverty lines should be fixed solely in terms of a consumption basket or if other criteria are also relevant; (ii) to examine divergence between the consumption estimates based on the NSSO methodology and those emerging from the National Accounts aggregates; (iii) to review international poverty estimation methods and indicate whether based on these, a particular method for empirical poverty estimation can be developed in India, and (iv) to recommend how these estimates of poverty can be linked to eligibility and entitlements under the various schemes of the Government of India. The Committee is expected to submit its report by 2014.Reference:Prs Blog: http://www.prsindia.org/theprsblog/?p=2848India Current Affairs: http://indiacurrentaffairs.org/incorrect-method-of-poverty-estimation-gives-false-results-utsa-patnaik/Youtube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wsvn6pod1Awhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BqnainbD5nI
From:Aditya Sangotra
History: 1. Pre independence poverty estimates:
* First of all done by Dada bhai naroji. His method was based on cost of subsistence diet i.e rice or flour, dhal, mutton, vegetables, ghee, vegetable oil and salt.
* Next, in 1938, the National Planning Committee Like the earlier method, they also formulated poverty line based on a minimum standard of living.
2. Post independence poverty estimates:
* In 1962, the Planning Commission constituted a working groupto estimate poverty nationally, and it formulated separate poverty lines for rural and urban areas of Rs 20 and Rs 25 per capita per year respectively. (numbers not imp)
* In 1971 VM Dandekar and N Rath made the first systematic assessment of poverty in India, based on National Sample Survey (NSS) data from 1960-61.First time the concept of poverty on basis of calorie consumption was brought to lime light. Their poverty line was to be derived from the expenditure that was adequate to provide 2250 calories per day in both rural and urban areas. Shortcoming: The consumption requirement for male female and urban rural labour is completely different from one another.
* Alagh Committee (1979): In 1979, seprated both poverty lines and calorie consumption based on rural and urban requirements.For subsequent years Poverty Lines were to be calculated in accordance with inflation.
Rural2400 cal Rs 49
Urban2100 cal Rs 56
* Lakdawala Committee (1993): Added more features and made above more efficient(i) consumption expenditure based on calorie consumption as earlier;(ii) first time state specific poverty lines were constructed and these were to updated using CPI-IW (industrial worker) in urban areas and CPI-AL (agri labour) in rural areas. Meaning : PL for all states separately and for country also. This assumes that the basket of goods and services used to calculate CPI-IW and CPI-AL reflect the consumption patterns of the poor.
* Tendulkar Committee (2009): Most recent and most controversial one.Shortcomings in previous methods such as:a) consumption patterns were linked to the 1973-74 poverty line baskets (PLBs) of goods and services but the choice of consumption patter has been completely changed since then.b) Poverty was estimated according to inflation but we know inflation does not affect the food products uniformly across the nation. E.g. In the season of apples they are available at cheap cost in J&K and are expensive in Tamil Nadu no matter what is the WPI or CPI. So inflation does not reflect the ground realityc) earlier poverty lines assumed that health and education would be provided by the State. So education and health were not included in the basic requirement basket.Recommendations:
* A shift away from calorie consumption based poverty estimation i.e not on calorie consumed but the money spent for various items including food, clothing etc (details are given below) . (ii) A uniform poverty line basket (PLB) in both rural and urban India i.e. same items of basic requirement for rural as well as urban population.(iii) A change in the price adjustment procedure to correct spatial and temporal issues with price adjustment like explained above in point (b).(iv) Incorporation of expenditure on health and education while estimating poverty.
Mixed Reference Period (MRP): five low-frequency items (clothing, footwear, durables, education and institutional health expenditure) are surveyed over the previous 365 days, and all other items over the previous 30 days.Uniform Reference Period (URP): detail consumption over the previous 30 days includes all above but this is limited only to one month.
* (v) Also continued with the adjustment of PL on basis of CPI-AL for rural and CPI-IW for urban poor.(vi) Use Mixed Reference Period (MRP) based estimates, as opposed to Uniform Reference Period (URP) based estimates that were used in earlier methods for estimating poverty.
Estimation of poverty line method:How much money is spent for the items mentioned above by those who were under PL (Poverty Line) before tendulkar (according to lakadwalas estimation). On its basis they came to conclusion that poverty line was Rs. 446 per capita and Rs. 578 per capita for rural and urban respectively for 2005-06. Remember that his estimation was not based on Calorie consumption.
Poverty line basket by Tendulkar:
Cereal, pulses, milk, edible oil, non-vegetarian items, vegetables, fresh fruits, dry fruits, sugar, salt & spices, other food, intoxicants, fuel, clothing, footwear, education, medical (non-institutional and institutional), entertainment, personal & toilet goods, other goods, other services and durables
Controversy:1. According to planning commission 2100 calorie for urban and 2200 calorie for rural is sufficient to be above the poverty line.2. Basket suggested by tendulkar is same as 1971 with just minor changes here and there.3. Like we know almost all basic utilities has been privatised by govt. So electricity, water, education, health care all is becoming expensive. These all are absolutely indispensible. No one can avoid these for only food. This factor was not counted by tendulkar.4. Even in present day the priority of an individual has been changed. He can cut on his food but has to travel for his daily work. With petrol prices rising to sky limits the fare cost have also risen but it is also not mentioned in any recommendation.5. Estimation of Planning commission is also based on world banks estimation which says that $1.25 is sufficient for daily use by an individual. This one is even more frivolous than others because consumption pattern cannot be same all around the world. Reasons: purchasing power parity and diversity in choice of consumption across the globe. Fluctuations in exchange rate also. Planning Commission's declaration that anyone who spends more thanRs.33.33 in a day in urban areas andRs.27.20 a day in rural areas is above the poverty line is based on World Banks $1.25 per capita per day method.6. Adjustment of poverty line according to inflation is far from reality. IF so then the salary of the Govt employees shall only be increased with Dearness allowances.But every decade a new Pay commission is constituted to completely change the whole structure of salaries to reflect the actual change in priority and consumption pattern. E.g. before 1990s the expenditure was only limited to Roti Kapda aur makaan, but now we need laptops and Smart phones too.7. Such unrealistic Poverty estimations will further exclude the deserving poor out of the ambit of PDS and will further the poverty and worsens the living conditions of poor of our country.8. As Tendulkar has recommended that there shall be same basket for both rural as well as urban poor is not practical. E.g. a poor lad in village needs to spend lesson on travelling than an urban manual labour that need to travel from slums to construction sites. A village inhabitant spends less on milk or grains but urban poor has to spend more. Rural labour being more intensive needs more calories than urban etc. Same size shoe does not fit all.Rangarajan Committee: In 2012, the Planning Commission constituted a newexpert panelon poverty estimation, chaired by C Rangarajan with the following key objectives: (i) to provide an alternate method to estimate poverty levels and examine whether poverty lines should be fixed solely in terms of a consumption basket or if other criteria are also relevant; (ii) to examine divergence between the consumption estimates based on the NSSO methodology and those emerging from the National Accounts aggregates; (iii) to review international poverty estimation methods and indicate whether based on these, a particular method for empirical poverty estimation can be developed in India, and (iv) to recommend how these estimates of poverty can be linked to eligibility and entitlements under the various schemes of the Government of India. The Committee is expected to submit its report by 2014.Reference:Prs Blog: http://www.prsindia.org/theprsblog/?p=2848India Current Affairs: http://indiacurrentaffairs.org/incorrect-method-of-poverty-estimation-gives-false-results-utsa-patnaik/Youtube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wsvn6pod1Awhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BqnainbD5nI
From:Aditya Sangotra
Places in News: Hindu November Month
Places in News: Hindu November Month
1 nov Upto24 nov
placedetailscategory
Myitkyina- Recently here meeting of ethnic minorities+ govt held . Situated on the banks of river Ayeyarwady cult.foreign
Kuthanur-Palakkad dist. Mega lithic burial site has been found Kayarampara in kuthanur (kerala). In past it was known for learned men & scholars.What is Mega lithic a very large stones that has been used to constriet a str/monuments.cult.local
Namphake (Assam)- On the bank of Burhidihing & One of the oldest and most respected Buddhist monastery of Assam . here Tai Phake community which has its roots in China (Yunan province )and Myanmar.Language spoken- Tai Pnake and Assamese both.Thai Phake- Also shares their cultural similarties with thai people in northern Part of Thailand. cult.local
Periyar Tiger Reserve and Mudumalai tiger reserve:Periyar Tiger Reserve here long billed vultured sighted after a long time .Long billed are good scaverger and having indangered status. Long Billed Vultured- till now their population servived only in ram Nagaram /near banglore.EnB.
Hamad International Airport- (Doha)Worlds first airport which has unrestricted operation for all commercial aircrafts. It is high tech upgraded Airport. But Missed official opening dates-Reason civil defence issue . Now will be open in 2014GK
Myitkyina- Capital of Kachin. (Myanmar)Myanmars largest non state armed force ethnic kokang armed groups and Kuki.Demands (i) Withdrawl of army froms ethnic minorities territory(ii) Granting such teritory autonomous status.(iii) If we surrender will gove. Absorb our armed groupsinto feudal armies.IR
Cauvery basin(North) and mannar basin(west of Sri Lanka) Oil blocks of Sri Lanka. ONGC videsh with Crain India will bid for this blocks.Importance :- China has its interest over these blocks. After CHOGM incidence , India want to strengthen its ties (but Indian local politics dominates over national interest). oil
counter insurgencyCounter insurgency & Anti terror school Three such school at : Ranchi (rural)LateharHazari bagh security
Doyang area of Wokha dist of NagalandMigratory birds amur falcons came here from Siberia. Later there locations were also tagged by satellite in Africa.Doyang river is famous here.Nagaland birds are killed so govt spread awareness to save amur falcons ENB
DARJLEELING TOY TRAINDARJEELING HIMALYAN RAILWAY- UNESCO STATUS IN 1999Routes- Kuseong- Darjeeling and siliguri- rongtong.Tracks were damaged due to land sliding so chances to loose UNESCO status.Ghoom is the highest point on route . It is 1st highest station in asia and 2nd in the worldENB
Kuril islandsDisputed island bw RUSSIA AND JAPANIR
MIAOENGANG (CHENGDU , SICHUAN PROVINCE ) CHINAJoint military exercise bw India and China , known as HAND IN HAND 2013IR
PAMBAN BRIDGE or Indra gandhi bridgeCONNECTS Rameshwarm to Pamban mainland. Now IIT/Madras team is looking into its strength.Indias 1st cantilever bridge. completed 100 years. 2nd longest sea bridge after Bandra worli sea link (Rajeev Gandhi sea link)(So Rajeev is larger than Indra)GK
Karwar port (Karnatka)Here INS vikramditya will come on jan 2014Security
BMEC (BANGLORE MUMBAI ECONOMIC CORRIDOR)U.K. +INDIA JOINT project. Investment bu UKIR
Sangdo (south korea)HQ. Of Green Climate fund. ENB
mumbaiAustralian consulate office open hereGK
Gurgaon11th (ASEM) Asia Europe meeting of foreign ministersGK
AMAZON regionWorlds biggest rain forest .Loosing its forest cover much faster due to-Soyabean production, extensive farming ENB
Central island of samar and leyte (Phillippines)Typhoon Haiyan damaged mostly in Tacloban (Leyte province of Phillippines)GK
MedogClose border with Arunanchal Pradesh. China opened a new high way to connect various cities of china.IR
AYNI Airbase of TajikistanStrategic location. Russia has airbase here. It is now refurbish by India. Actually Farkhor is Indias airbase in Tajikistan. It is counter attack on Chinas string of pearl diplomacy.IR
Hokersar wetland (Srinagar J&K India)Protected bird sanctuary. It is only ramsar site of J&K. Due to political nexus - illegal construction - its wetland area is shrunken.Other wetlands of J&K-Shallabugh, Hygan, wullar and MirgundENB
Coorg block (in Kerala and karnatka) 3000km^2 areaAncient microcontinent discovered here. Broken off from Madagascar or Africa.Geography
Manfouha (S. Arabia)Violence against migrant workers of Africa. Reason- Notaqat policy, which expanded employment opportunities of Saudi nationals.IR
Andhra PradeshPrakasham, Guntur,Krishna, Nellore- affected by Cyclone HELEN. (dont confuse with Haiyen (Phillippines) and Phalin (orrisa)National
Kadur Chikmagalur (Rail line)Connect chikmagalur with Hubli Banglore main line.Rail line broad gauge. Govt new policy all railway lines should be converted into broad gauge.National
Senkaku or DiaoyuThis is a disputed island in East china sea. Dispute bw China and Japan.Called Senkaku by japan and Diaoyu by china.Now china set up air defence zone over it.IR
Krishna dist of Andhra P.Planning to consider it as new capital of AP. Other choices- Guntur- But here problem is land and water.VZK- not have central location
* Guntur is famous for red Chilli.national
Gulf of Mannar+ Gulf of Kutch+A& NicobarHere coral reef ecosystem is threaten by soft coral (carijoariisei). It is growing very fast + monopolised the food and space of original coral reefs. They are translocated through ships.1st reported in Kundol island of nicobar.*Mahatma Gandhi marine national park- AndamanENB
Qatar2022 FIFA world cup organiser. Abusement of migrant workers and complains of forced labour reported by AMNESTY.IR
Tokyo5th Indo-US- japan trilateral meet.Discussion over- Reconstruction of Afganistan.India+ japan-- Fright corridor and Delhi Mumbai industrial corridor (Assistance from Japan)IR
Jalandhar attari gas pipelineIndia will export gas to Pakistan . Gas provided by GAILIR
India Vietnam - 7 new oil blocks offered to India.one block allotted in Uzbekistan (Kossar block).In return India will train 500 vietnames sub marines + $100 million credit line (includes 4 naval boats)Previous allotted blocks to india in South china sea-Block 6.1- no objection by chinaBlock 127--- Yes, Objection by chinaBlock 128--- Again objection.India returned 127 and 128 blocks with pity excuses like- No oil or financially not viable.But Everyone knows the reality.oil
Priya vihar Hindu templeNear border area of Thailand and Cambodia
* UNESCO world heritage status. 900 years old temple .Now dispute is not over the temple but the land nearby area of temple.ICJ- favoured Cambodias claim.cult.foreign
Chandra Deo
1 nov Upto24 nov
placedetailscategory
Myitkyina- Recently here meeting of ethnic minorities+ govt held . Situated on the banks of river Ayeyarwady cult.foreign
Kuthanur-Palakkad dist. Mega lithic burial site has been found Kayarampara in kuthanur (kerala). In past it was known for learned men & scholars.What is Mega lithic a very large stones that has been used to constriet a str/monuments.cult.local
Namphake (Assam)- On the bank of Burhidihing & One of the oldest and most respected Buddhist monastery of Assam . here Tai Phake community which has its roots in China (Yunan province )and Myanmar.Language spoken- Tai Pnake and Assamese both.Thai Phake- Also shares their cultural similarties with thai people in northern Part of Thailand. cult.local
Periyar Tiger Reserve and Mudumalai tiger reserve:Periyar Tiger Reserve here long billed vultured sighted after a long time .Long billed are good scaverger and having indangered status. Long Billed Vultured- till now their population servived only in ram Nagaram /near banglore.EnB.
Hamad International Airport- (Doha)Worlds first airport which has unrestricted operation for all commercial aircrafts. It is high tech upgraded Airport. But Missed official opening dates-Reason civil defence issue . Now will be open in 2014GK
Myitkyina- Capital of Kachin. (Myanmar)Myanmars largest non state armed force ethnic kokang armed groups and Kuki.Demands (i) Withdrawl of army froms ethnic minorities territory(ii) Granting such teritory autonomous status.(iii) If we surrender will gove. Absorb our armed groupsinto feudal armies.IR
Cauvery basin(North) and mannar basin(west of Sri Lanka) Oil blocks of Sri Lanka. ONGC videsh with Crain India will bid for this blocks.Importance :- China has its interest over these blocks. After CHOGM incidence , India want to strengthen its ties (but Indian local politics dominates over national interest). oil
counter insurgencyCounter insurgency & Anti terror school Three such school at : Ranchi (rural)LateharHazari bagh security
Doyang area of Wokha dist of NagalandMigratory birds amur falcons came here from Siberia. Later there locations were also tagged by satellite in Africa.Doyang river is famous here.Nagaland birds are killed so govt spread awareness to save amur falcons ENB
DARJLEELING TOY TRAINDARJEELING HIMALYAN RAILWAY- UNESCO STATUS IN 1999Routes- Kuseong- Darjeeling and siliguri- rongtong.Tracks were damaged due to land sliding so chances to loose UNESCO status.Ghoom is the highest point on route . It is 1st highest station in asia and 2nd in the worldENB
Kuril islandsDisputed island bw RUSSIA AND JAPANIR
MIAOENGANG (CHENGDU , SICHUAN PROVINCE ) CHINAJoint military exercise bw India and China , known as HAND IN HAND 2013IR
PAMBAN BRIDGE or Indra gandhi bridgeCONNECTS Rameshwarm to Pamban mainland. Now IIT/Madras team is looking into its strength.Indias 1st cantilever bridge. completed 100 years. 2nd longest sea bridge after Bandra worli sea link (Rajeev Gandhi sea link)(So Rajeev is larger than Indra)GK
Karwar port (Karnatka)Here INS vikramditya will come on jan 2014Security
BMEC (BANGLORE MUMBAI ECONOMIC CORRIDOR)U.K. +INDIA JOINT project. Investment bu UKIR
Sangdo (south korea)HQ. Of Green Climate fund. ENB
mumbaiAustralian consulate office open hereGK
Gurgaon11th (ASEM) Asia Europe meeting of foreign ministersGK
AMAZON regionWorlds biggest rain forest .Loosing its forest cover much faster due to-Soyabean production, extensive farming ENB
Central island of samar and leyte (Phillippines)Typhoon Haiyan damaged mostly in Tacloban (Leyte province of Phillippines)GK
MedogClose border with Arunanchal Pradesh. China opened a new high way to connect various cities of china.IR
AYNI Airbase of TajikistanStrategic location. Russia has airbase here. It is now refurbish by India. Actually Farkhor is Indias airbase in Tajikistan. It is counter attack on Chinas string of pearl diplomacy.IR
Hokersar wetland (Srinagar J&K India)Protected bird sanctuary. It is only ramsar site of J&K. Due to political nexus - illegal construction - its wetland area is shrunken.Other wetlands of J&K-Shallabugh, Hygan, wullar and MirgundENB
Coorg block (in Kerala and karnatka) 3000km^2 areaAncient microcontinent discovered here. Broken off from Madagascar or Africa.Geography
Manfouha (S. Arabia)Violence against migrant workers of Africa. Reason- Notaqat policy, which expanded employment opportunities of Saudi nationals.IR
Andhra PradeshPrakasham, Guntur,Krishna, Nellore- affected by Cyclone HELEN. (dont confuse with Haiyen (Phillippines) and Phalin (orrisa)National
Kadur Chikmagalur (Rail line)Connect chikmagalur with Hubli Banglore main line.Rail line broad gauge. Govt new policy all railway lines should be converted into broad gauge.National
Senkaku or DiaoyuThis is a disputed island in East china sea. Dispute bw China and Japan.Called Senkaku by japan and Diaoyu by china.Now china set up air defence zone over it.IR
Krishna dist of Andhra P.Planning to consider it as new capital of AP. Other choices- Guntur- But here problem is land and water.VZK- not have central location
* Guntur is famous for red Chilli.national
Gulf of Mannar+ Gulf of Kutch+A& NicobarHere coral reef ecosystem is threaten by soft coral (carijoariisei). It is growing very fast + monopolised the food and space of original coral reefs. They are translocated through ships.1st reported in Kundol island of nicobar.*Mahatma Gandhi marine national park- AndamanENB
Qatar2022 FIFA world cup organiser. Abusement of migrant workers and complains of forced labour reported by AMNESTY.IR
Tokyo5th Indo-US- japan trilateral meet.Discussion over- Reconstruction of Afganistan.India+ japan-- Fright corridor and Delhi Mumbai industrial corridor (Assistance from Japan)IR
Jalandhar attari gas pipelineIndia will export gas to Pakistan . Gas provided by GAILIR
India Vietnam - 7 new oil blocks offered to India.one block allotted in Uzbekistan (Kossar block).In return India will train 500 vietnames sub marines + $100 million credit line (includes 4 naval boats)Previous allotted blocks to india in South china sea-Block 6.1- no objection by chinaBlock 127--- Yes, Objection by chinaBlock 128--- Again objection.India returned 127 and 128 blocks with pity excuses like- No oil or financially not viable.But Everyone knows the reality.oil
Priya vihar Hindu templeNear border area of Thailand and Cambodia
* UNESCO world heritage status. 900 years old temple .Now dispute is not over the temple but the land nearby area of temple.ICJ- favoured Cambodias claim.cult.foreign
Chandra Deo
This article will covers most of general science syllabus as
This article will covers most of general science syllabus as per upsc main syllabus paper gs 3
upsc syallbus general science
* Awarness in the field of IT , Space , Computers , robotics , nano technology ,bio technology
and issues relating to intellectual property rights
* Achivements of indians in science and technology ; indigenization of technology and developing new technology
* Science and Technology developments and their applications and effects in every day life
The above syllabus of upsc for general science is vast so I tried to confine this article to upsc point of view i.e. by seeing gs papers from 1986-2012 that are posted by mrunal.
Space
Nine planets are : Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , Neptune
Mnemonic My Very Efficient Mother just showed us nine planet
Asteroids :- tiny bodies which also moves around the sun example ceres
meteroids :- small pieces of rocks that also revolves around sun
ISRO (indian space research organisation ) :- launches satellites for india
space commission formulates ploicies and programmes for isro .
Que State the importance of Antrix Corporation.
Ans Antrix Corporation is the Commercial branch of the ISRO. It sales scientific services related to the space technology and satellites in the international market earning valuable foreign currency for India.
Types of sattelite :-
1. Exploartion and Research Satellites :-Hubble space telescope , kepler(space craft) , Terra (satellite),Aqua (satellite) (EXPLAINED BELOW)
2. Communication Satellites :-includes telephone, television, radio, internet access, military, and probably more
3) Weather Satellites
4) Navigational Satellites:- Global Positioning System 5). Reconnaissance :-KH-9 Hexagon
Launch Vehicle
what is a launch vehicle ?
Launch Vehicles are used to transport and putsatellite or spacecrafts into space.
Satellite Launch Vehicle :- 4 stage launcher project by isro to develop technology needed to launch satellite
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) :- project to placefive-stage ASLV into low earth orbit in order to develop technology needed for payload to be placed in geostationery orbit .
Polar sattelite launch vehicle (PSLV) :- Expandable launch system for the purpose to develop indian remote sensing satellite .
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) :- expandable launch system to develop its INSAT sattelite into geostationery orbit and to make india less dependent on foreign players . more powerful than PSLV.Requires a cryogenic engine.
A cryogenic engine is one that uses a cryogenic fuel or oxidiser, that is, its fuel or oxidiser (or both) is gases liquefied and stored at very low temperatures
Orbit
Geocentric Orbit :- Orbit around earth
Altitude classification of geocentric orbit
Low earth orbit :- upto 2000 m
medium earth orbit :- 2000 to geostationery orbit
geostationery orbit:- orbital time period equals to 24 hr , used for communication purposes , always appers to be at fixed point , type of equitorial orbit. So main advantage is that geostationery sattelite remains over same place and provide better service to a single country. If geostationery orbit is too much crowded then threat of collission between tracked satellite and large debris increases .
so what is an equitorial and polar orbit ?
In equitorial orbit satellite at any time remains above the equator of earth moving either east or west overhead , satellite launched as close to the equator as possible
polar orbits are inclined nearly 90 degree from the equator , launched from higher altitude
Que What is Integrated Guided Missile Development Program
Ans IGMDP is a ministry of defence programme for the research and developments of missiles for defence purposes and is managed by DRDO and ordinance factories board. Successfully ended in 2008
MISSILES DEVELOPED :-
1. Prithvi missile:- surface to surface short range missiles , range 150-300 km , 3 prithivi missile developed
2. Agni missile :- intercontinental and medium range missile, agni i-v developed and agni-vi is under development range upto 6000 km
3. Trishul Missile :- short range surface to air missile , range 9 km ,
4. Akash Missile :- medium range surface to air missile
5. Nag missile :- all weather missile , can fire upto 5-7 km
Que what is meant by a "stealth aircraft" ? mention two stealth technological techniques used in such an aircraft ?
ANS Stealth aircraft are used to avoid detection from radar , infrared emission. Compromise with speed and agility. Stealth technology is a combination of technology that prevents aircraft from detection . Technology employed are :-
1. Radar cross section reduction :- use of chaff, chaff is a radar counter measure in which an aircraft spreads a small pieces of aluminium or metallized glass fiber that results into swamps of radar screen.
2. Effective design of aircraft in order to minimize radar refelction
3) Radar Absorbent Material (RAM), often as paints, are used especially on the edges of metal surfaces.
Que Trace the progress of India's Space Research Programmes? What are its significant achievements?
Ans 1969 ISRO set up , 1975 1st aryabhata launched
Satellites
(Indian National Satellite System):- Geostationery satellites for communication ,meteorological , search and rescue operation . 10 satellites in service
IRS( Indian Remote Sensing ) :- Remote sensing is a technique to get infoemation of an object through analysis of data that are in form of electromagnetic radiations by special instruements that are not in physical contact with it. It is mostly used for surveying area to get millions of data from an object surface. It increses accuracy in measuring dimension of the object. Remote sensors include photographic camera,mechanical scanners and imaging radar system.11 satellites that can provide a better resolution of 1m .
Satellite Navigation
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) :- main aim is to access gps technology . It provides 2 types of services
1. Standard Positioning Service:- for civilian use
2. Restricted service :- for military persons
GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmunted Navigation ) :- Implemented by isro and airport authority of india to carry out operation for safety of life .
Launch Vehicle
PSLV
GSLV
Satellite Applications
SatCom Applications
Remote Sensing Applications:- IRS data is used for various planning purposes like forest mapping ,urban planning , identifying mineral zones and much more
Village Resource Center's (VRC) :-skill development institue or experts provide education to rural areas through village resource center's
Que What are VSATs? What are they used for?
Ans Very Small Aperture Terminal is an earthbound station used in satellite communications of data, voice and video signals excluding broadcast television .It consisits of two parts Transceiver that is plcaed otdoor in direct line of sight of satellite and another device is placed indoors that interpret the signals such as a pc .
Que How does the development of Pinaka benefit India?
Ans Pinka, a multi-barrel rocket launcher weapon has proved India's Capability to develop Latest, Stage weapons. This System has 12 Solid Propellant rockets to give it higher capacity. Its tange is about 40 km. It can launch variety of warheads. The Pinka developed by the Armament Research and Development Establishment, Pune.Defence Research and Development Organisation developed it based on indigenous technology. This System has pushed India's missile programme. It can be situated near the border line to control strategic activities of neighbouring countries that may cause negative impact on Indian security concerns, by its influence on defence policy. Multi barrel system contributes to enlarged attack capacity.India's relations, especially with boundary joined countries have not been passing through a reliable and safe phase and so, the proof of India's capacity in scientific research and development will help control situations.
Lunar Eclipse:-occurs when Earth's shadow blocks the suns light i.e. sun , earth and moon are in a straight line which happens onlly once a month. So why not lunar eclipse every month because usually shadow of earth falls above or below the moon surface when it fall exactly on moon sarface then lunar eclipse occurs.
so lunar eclipse is visible only in that half portion of earth whish have night. It means you can not see lunar eclipse in day time. Lunar eclipse occurs only on that part of earth which have full moon night because Moon has to be behind Earth for full moon - that's when we see the biggest part of it . Another question arises that why moon appears to be red during lunar eclipse
its answer lies in dispersion of shorter wavelength in atmosphere only longer wavelength reaches us . If earth has no atmosphere then moon looks copletely black in eclipse.
Solar eclipse :-A Solar Eclipse occurs when the moon goes in front of the sun and blocks most of the sun's light from the earth. During a total eclipse all you can see from earth is a ring of light around the moon which is part of the sun the moon did not cover. It is dangerous to look at a solar eclipse directly, even if you have sun glasses or smoked glass. It is better to view solar eclipses through a pin hole projector.
Black hole:- A celestial body whose surface gravity is so strong that not even light can escape once trapped. a black hole is invisible So if light cannot escape, nothing else can.
Comet:-A comet is a small member of the solar system made up of rocky material held together by frozen gases When a comet approaches the sun its tail is following. When it moves away from the sun its tail is leading the comet.
Constellation :-A constellation is a group of stars visible within a particular region of the night sky. Some were named after animals and some mythological characters. Some Constellations can be viewed after sunset and before sunrise . you can't see constellations during the day because the sun's light is too bright to see star light.on equator you can view all the constellations in a year. On North or South Pole, you will only be able to see the part of the sky above you.
Phases of moon :- Throughout each month the moon will change from a crescent shape to a full moon. The stages in between are called phases. After seven days the moon will change from a crescent to a half moon. For the next seven days the moon will change from being a half moon to a full moon. The reason why it has full and half moons depends on how the sunlight reflects off of the surface of the moon and how much of it we can see. The shadow on the moon always goes from east to west. The line that divides the part we can see from the dark part is called the terminator.
Meteor
A meteoroid that burns up as it passes through the Earths atmosphere is known as a meteor. If youve ever looked up at the sky at night and seen a streak of light or shooting star what you are actually seeing is a meteor.
Meteorite
A meteoroid that survives falling through the Earths atmosphere and colliding with the Earths surface is known as a meteorite.
Que what is a quasars and pulsars ?
Ans A pulsar is a rapidly spinning neutron star the remnant of a supernova explosion. It has a powerful magnetic field, shooting out jets of radiation that sweep across space like lighthouse beams when they line up with Earth they appear as a rapidly repeating burst of light. A quasar is in fact a distant galaxy with a fluctuating blaze of light and other radiations coming from its central regions. The activity in these galaxies is caused by a giant black hole at their very heart, pulling in material from its surroundings, tearing it to shreds and heating it up to tremendous temperatures before swallowing it up.
Measuring instruements
1. Hydrometer Measuring the density or relative density of liquids. Based on
floatation principle.
2. Magnetron Produces microwave. Used in ovens.
3. Actinometer Used to measure intensity of electromagnetic radiation
4. Altimeter Aneroid barometer for measuring altitude.
5. Bolometer For measuring heat radiation
6. Dasymeter Measuring density of gas
7. Galvanometer Used for detecting small electric currents.
8. Gyroscope Determine orientation in aircraft, ships etc.
9. Katharometer Measuring thermal conductivity
10. Manometer Measuring the pressure of a gas.
11. Nethoscope Determining the speed of celestial bodies.
12. Rectifier Converts AC into DC.
13. Tonometer Measures pitch of sound
14. Venturimeter Measures rate of flow of fluids
15. Udometer Rain guage.
QUESTIONS THAT ARE ASKED LAST YEAR IN UPSC IN GENERAL SCIENCE
1. Copyright and Trade-mark
Copyright is one of the creative Intellectual Property Rights and protects creative or artistic works. Copyright applies on literative, music, art, painting, etc.
A Trademark is a type of intellectual property represented by a distinctive sign or indicator of some kind used by an individual, business organization or other legal entity to identify uniquely the source of its products or services to consumer.
2. TIFAC
Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC) is an autonomous organization under the Department of Science and Technology, established in February 1988.
TIFAC aims to keep a technology watch on global trends, and formulating preferred technology options for India.
3. Aspartame
The artificial sweetener aspartame has been the subject of public controversy regarding its safety and the circumstances around its approval.
The US Food and Drug Administration states that the safety of aspartame is "clear cut".
4. Gene doping
Gene doping is defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency as "the non-therapeutic use of cells, genes, genetic elements, or of the modulation of gene-expression, having the capacity to improve athletic performance."
5. Sappan
Sappan Wood or East Indian real wood is a multipurpose tree. It is a small thorny spreading tree that up to 10m in height and the wood reaches 15-30 cm in diameter.
In India it is cultivated in gardens and nurseries as a live fence plants in parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal
6. IPCC Report on Global Warning:
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperature, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global mean sea level.
The report said man-made emissions of greenhouse gases can already be blamed for fewer cold days, hotter nights, heat waves, floods and heavy rains, devasting drought, and an increase in hurricane and tropical-storm strengths.
7.What is firewall?
It is a technique related to security regarding computers. It allows only those programs to the computer which are permitted and restrict any other unwanted command and data.
8.What is malware?
This software is made to harm any computer system. Computer users are unknown to the term malware and many a times they miSunderstand it with virus.
9.Discuss the missile technology initiatives undertaken by India.
(i) MPEG: Moving Picture Expert Group.
(ii) HTML : Hyper Text Markup Language.
(iii) ASCII : American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
10.What is Root Kit?
By Root kit a special program is directed which can destroy the whole operation system and it can steal information from a group.
11.What is computer architecture?
Computer architecture is a computer technique which helps in various areas and subjects related to designing.
12.What do you understand by a search engine in computer?
Internet search engines (eg Google, AltaVista) help users find web pages on a given subject. The search engines maintain databases of web sites and use programs (often referred to as "spiders" or "robots") to collect information, which is then indexed by the search engine.
13. Expand the following
(i) CAD: Computer Aided Design
(ii) CAM: Computer Aided Manufacturing
(iii) CIM: Computer Integrated Manufacturing
14.Explain what is Thin Film Memory in computers?
Thin film memory is a high-sped variation of core memory developed by Sperry Rand in a government-funded research project. Instead of threading individual ferrite cores on wires, a thin film (4 millionths of an inch thick) of iron- nickel alloy (called permalloy) was deposited as small dots (using a mask) on small glass plates, by vacuum evaporation techniques.
15.Write a short note on Artificial Intelligence.
A branch of computer science that studies how to endow computers with capabili:ties of human intelligence. For example, speech recognition is a problem being worked on by A1 scientists.
16.Who are called Hackers in computer world?
A hacker is someone who creates and modifies computer software and computer hardware, including computer programming, administration, and security-related items.
The term usually bears strong connotations, but may be either favorable or denigrating depending on cultural context (see the Hacker definition controversy). Common definitions include.
17.What do you understand by E- governance?
E-governance refers to the use of information and communications technologies to improve the efficiency, effectiveness, transparency and accountability of government.
18.What is URL?
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator, the global address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web.
19.What do the following stand for?
(i) CD-ROM: Compact Disk-Read Only Memory
(ii) USB: Universal Serial Bus.
(iii) ITES: Information Technology Enabled Services.
(iv) FORTRAN: Formula Translator.
20.What do understand by MP3?
An audio compression technology that is part of the MPEG-1 and MPEG2specifications.
21.What are cyber crimes? How are these protected?
Cyber crimes consists of specific crimes dealing with computers and networks (such as hacking) and the facilitation of traditional crime through the use of computer (child pornography, hate crimes, telemarketing/ internet fraud). Cyber crimes can be protected by passing stringent laws, developing security codes and use of digital signatures.
22. What is 'Sympathetic Haptics'?
Sympathetic Haptics:
Sympathetic Haptics uses a data glove to sense the pressure being applied by a user to every part of that user's hand and fingers. The system can then broadcast those feelings over the Internet to another user wearing the same type of glove.
23. What are special features of 'Linux'?
Features of Linux are:
(i) Full multitasking and 32-bit support
(ii) GNU software support
(iii) TCP/IP networking support
(iv) Virtual memory and shared libraries.
24. What is an operating system? List the basic services provided by an operating system.
The operating system is the first program loaded into the computer as it boots, and it remains in memory at pull times thereafter. This is responsible for allocating system resources, including memory, processor time, disk space and peripheral devices such as printers, modems and the monitor.
25. What is an 'Internet Worm? Explain DDoS.
When a worm gains access to a computer (usually by breaking into it over the internet) it launches a programme which searches for other internet locations, infecting them if it can. At no time does the worm need user assistance (accidental or not) in order to operate its programming. Moreover, the worm travels over the internet, so all machines attached to an infected machine are at risk of attack. DDOS- Distributed Denial of Service
26. What do the following stand for?
(i) POSsIX: Portable Operating System Interface.
(ii) EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read only Memory.
(iii) MODEM: Modulator-Demodulator.
(iv) COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language.
27. What is a digital camera?
A digital camera has no film but a server converts light into an image that can be stored on a computer or printed out on a desktop printer.
28. What is firewall in computer Language?
Firewall is the safety valve for the computer not allowing others to reach the converted programmes.
29. What is multimedia?
Multimedia uses audio, video, virtual reality technique, telephony etc. at the same time.
30. What do the following stand for?
(i) HTML: Hyper Text Markup Language.
(ii) FTP: File Transfer Protocol.
(iii) MFLOPS: Million Floating Points Option Per Second.
(iv) PLANIT: Planit website has won 5 web awards.
31. What is Piracy?
Piracy is duplicating the original one and selling it through black marketing.
32.What is "handshake" in computer language?
In computer language 'handshake' is the sequence of messages exchanged between two or more network devices to ensure transmission synchronisation.
33What is "Ethernet" and what is it used for?
A baseband LAN (Local Area Network) specification invented by Xerox Corporation and developed jointly by Xerox, Intel and Digital Equipment Corporation. Ethernet networks operate at 10 Mbps using CSMA/CD to run over coaxial cable. Ethernet is similar to a series of standards produced by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers).
34.What is "digital signature" and what is it used for?
In business transaction, digital signature plays a function for digital documents. The increase in electronic commerce has made it a requirement. A digital signature system consists of two parts - a method of signing a document so that forgery is not possible, and a method of verifying that a signature was really generated by the person who it represents.
35.What do the following stand for?
(i) DRAM: Distributed Random Access Memory.
(ii) JPEG: Joint Photographic Expert's Group.
(iii) ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
(iv) IMAP: Image Map.
36.What is a WAP-enabled phone?
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)
is a technique used in telecommunication. In this technique a telephone is attached with a screen on which one see the image of the talking partner through this technique one can also access the WAP sites.
37.What are the prospects of CTBT?
If nuclear powers are ready to accept the national interest of other countries and willing to negotiate the terms, this CT&T would ensure the world peace even with nuclear powers.
38.Differentiate between Collective security and Cooperative security.
Collective security is for the Global concern including all the nations on common vital issues, i.e. environment space etc. Cooperative security is agreement between two or more nation in defence.
39.What do the following stand for?
(i) MARV: Multiple Airborne Re-entry Vehicles
(ii) MIRV: Multiple Independent targeted Re-entry Vehicles.
(iii) ICBM: Inter Continental Ballistic Missile.
40.Differentiate between Explosion and Implosion.
In explosion, energy is released by particles flowing outwards of the nucleus - i.e. Atom bomb. In implosion, energy is released by particles flowing inwards to the nucleus i.e. stars.
41.What does the 'clock speed' of a computer signify?
Clock speed refers to the rate of which the CPU clock operates. Measured in mhz or GHz. Faster the clock, faster the programme of operations.
42.What do the following stand for?
(i) HTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol.
(ii) CPU: Central Processing Unit.
(iii) ROM: Read Only Memory.
(iv) BIOS: Basic Input Output System.
43.What are a modern and what is it used for?
Modern stands for modulator demodulator. This device links a computer system and a telephone line to facilitate data transmission at high speed between two computers.
44.What is spamming?
It refers to junk mails. They proliferate despite many efforts to reduce them. Term is used for unsoldated commercial mails.
45.How does a computer virus destroy data?
A computer virus is active software. It enters a computer and damages or destroys data by its program.
46.What is modern? What is it used for?
Modern stands for modulator demodulator telephone line to facilitate data transmission at high speed between two computers. It converts analog data to digital vice-versa.
47.What is CNG? How can it reduce air pollution?
Comprehensive Natural Gas. Reduces emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and other pollutants, green house gases etc.
48.What is a computer virus? How does it infect systems?
Computer virus is a Software Programme which actively spreads and enters in computers to destroy or damage, data in the affected computers.
49.What do the following stand for?
(i)NISSAT: National Information System for Science and Technology.
(ii) GMRT: Giant Metre wave Radio Telescope.
(iii) INMAS: Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Science.
50.Where are the following located?
(i) Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology :Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
(ii) Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research: Kakpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
(iii) Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre: Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
51.How do identical twins differ from each other genetically?
Identical twins are 'minor image' of each other in their genetic composition and so their habits reflect it. One becomes lefty and other right handed and soon.
52.Why are transgenic organisms important?
Transgenic Organisms are created with desired ability and quality. In agriculture, such plant is made drought proof, resistible to any disorder. Livestocks are brought up through this technique which yields more milk meat and wool.
53.State the importance of Antrix Corporation.
Antrix Corporation is the Commercial branch of the ISRO. It sales scientific services related to the space technology and satellites in the international market earning valuable foreign currency for India.
54.Why is Website getting popular?
Website is the location where information is kept in the Internet. They give us easily and quickly information access. So, they are very popular now-a-days.
55.What do the following stand for?
(i) C-DAC: Centre for Development of Advanced Computing
(ii) ICMR: Indian Council of Medical Research
(iii) TRAI: Telecom Regulatory Authority of India.
56.Give the functions of interferons.
Interferons increases immunity of our body by producing antibodies. They are anti-viral proteins.
57.What is the difference between E-mail and FAX?
E-mail is electronic-mail used to send message between two computers via internet while fax prints the message on a paper by fax machine.
58.What is centchroman?
A contraceptive formulation developed and used in India. Though it is not approved by FDA for sale in the U.S. yet, is supposedly does not have any of the negative side effect.
59.What is ultrasonography?
Using more than 20,000 Hz frequency rays an image of internal part of body is recorded for medical and surgical user. This technique is known as ultrasonography.
60.What do the following stand for?
(i) C-DOT: Centre for Development of Telematics.
(ii) CGCRI: Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute.
(iii) INMAS: Institute of Nuclear medicine and Allied Science.
61.What is HIV? What does it cause?
HIV is Human Immuno deficiency Virus. It causes a disease Aids (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) which weakens immunity system of body.
62.Why does a lunar eclipse occur only on a full moon?
Only on a full moon day, the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, which is necessary for a lunar eclipse.
63.Where are the following located? (Give the name of the city and state)
(i) Central Drug Research Institute: Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
(ii) Space Application Centre: Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
(iii) Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research: Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
Rohit Garwal
upsc syallbus general science
* Awarness in the field of IT , Space , Computers , robotics , nano technology ,bio technology
and issues relating to intellectual property rights
* Achivements of indians in science and technology ; indigenization of technology and developing new technology
* Science and Technology developments and their applications and effects in every day life
The above syllabus of upsc for general science is vast so I tried to confine this article to upsc point of view i.e. by seeing gs papers from 1986-2012 that are posted by mrunal.
Space
Nine planets are : Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , Neptune
Mnemonic My Very Efficient Mother just showed us nine planet
Asteroids :- tiny bodies which also moves around the sun example ceres
meteroids :- small pieces of rocks that also revolves around sun
ISRO (indian space research organisation ) :- launches satellites for india
space commission formulates ploicies and programmes for isro .
Que State the importance of Antrix Corporation.
Ans Antrix Corporation is the Commercial branch of the ISRO. It sales scientific services related to the space technology and satellites in the international market earning valuable foreign currency for India.
Types of sattelite :-
1. Exploartion and Research Satellites :-Hubble space telescope , kepler(space craft) , Terra (satellite),Aqua (satellite) (EXPLAINED BELOW)
2. Communication Satellites :-includes telephone, television, radio, internet access, military, and probably more
3) Weather Satellites
4) Navigational Satellites:- Global Positioning System 5). Reconnaissance :-KH-9 Hexagon
Launch Vehicle
what is a launch vehicle ?
Launch Vehicles are used to transport and putsatellite or spacecrafts into space.
Satellite Launch Vehicle :- 4 stage launcher project by isro to develop technology needed to launch satellite
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) :- project to placefive-stage ASLV into low earth orbit in order to develop technology needed for payload to be placed in geostationery orbit .
Polar sattelite launch vehicle (PSLV) :- Expandable launch system for the purpose to develop indian remote sensing satellite .
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) :- expandable launch system to develop its INSAT sattelite into geostationery orbit and to make india less dependent on foreign players . more powerful than PSLV.Requires a cryogenic engine.
A cryogenic engine is one that uses a cryogenic fuel or oxidiser, that is, its fuel or oxidiser (or both) is gases liquefied and stored at very low temperatures
Orbit
Geocentric Orbit :- Orbit around earth
Altitude classification of geocentric orbit
Low earth orbit :- upto 2000 m
medium earth orbit :- 2000 to geostationery orbit
geostationery orbit:- orbital time period equals to 24 hr , used for communication purposes , always appers to be at fixed point , type of equitorial orbit. So main advantage is that geostationery sattelite remains over same place and provide better service to a single country. If geostationery orbit is too much crowded then threat of collission between tracked satellite and large debris increases .
so what is an equitorial and polar orbit ?
In equitorial orbit satellite at any time remains above the equator of earth moving either east or west overhead , satellite launched as close to the equator as possible
polar orbits are inclined nearly 90 degree from the equator , launched from higher altitude
Que What is Integrated Guided Missile Development Program
Ans IGMDP is a ministry of defence programme for the research and developments of missiles for defence purposes and is managed by DRDO and ordinance factories board. Successfully ended in 2008
MISSILES DEVELOPED :-
1. Prithvi missile:- surface to surface short range missiles , range 150-300 km , 3 prithivi missile developed
2. Agni missile :- intercontinental and medium range missile, agni i-v developed and agni-vi is under development range upto 6000 km
3. Trishul Missile :- short range surface to air missile , range 9 km ,
4. Akash Missile :- medium range surface to air missile
5. Nag missile :- all weather missile , can fire upto 5-7 km
Que what is meant by a "stealth aircraft" ? mention two stealth technological techniques used in such an aircraft ?
ANS Stealth aircraft are used to avoid detection from radar , infrared emission. Compromise with speed and agility. Stealth technology is a combination of technology that prevents aircraft from detection . Technology employed are :-
1. Radar cross section reduction :- use of chaff, chaff is a radar counter measure in which an aircraft spreads a small pieces of aluminium or metallized glass fiber that results into swamps of radar screen.
2. Effective design of aircraft in order to minimize radar refelction
3) Radar Absorbent Material (RAM), often as paints, are used especially on the edges of metal surfaces.
Que Trace the progress of India's Space Research Programmes? What are its significant achievements?
Ans 1969 ISRO set up , 1975 1st aryabhata launched
Satellites
(Indian National Satellite System):- Geostationery satellites for communication ,meteorological , search and rescue operation . 10 satellites in service
IRS( Indian Remote Sensing ) :- Remote sensing is a technique to get infoemation of an object through analysis of data that are in form of electromagnetic radiations by special instruements that are not in physical contact with it. It is mostly used for surveying area to get millions of data from an object surface. It increses accuracy in measuring dimension of the object. Remote sensors include photographic camera,mechanical scanners and imaging radar system.11 satellites that can provide a better resolution of 1m .
Satellite Navigation
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) :- main aim is to access gps technology . It provides 2 types of services
1. Standard Positioning Service:- for civilian use
2. Restricted service :- for military persons
GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmunted Navigation ) :- Implemented by isro and airport authority of india to carry out operation for safety of life .
Launch Vehicle
PSLV
GSLV
Satellite Applications
SatCom Applications
Remote Sensing Applications:- IRS data is used for various planning purposes like forest mapping ,urban planning , identifying mineral zones and much more
Village Resource Center's (VRC) :-skill development institue or experts provide education to rural areas through village resource center's
Que What are VSATs? What are they used for?
Ans Very Small Aperture Terminal is an earthbound station used in satellite communications of data, voice and video signals excluding broadcast television .It consisits of two parts Transceiver that is plcaed otdoor in direct line of sight of satellite and another device is placed indoors that interpret the signals such as a pc .
Que How does the development of Pinaka benefit India?
Ans Pinka, a multi-barrel rocket launcher weapon has proved India's Capability to develop Latest, Stage weapons. This System has 12 Solid Propellant rockets to give it higher capacity. Its tange is about 40 km. It can launch variety of warheads. The Pinka developed by the Armament Research and Development Establishment, Pune.Defence Research and Development Organisation developed it based on indigenous technology. This System has pushed India's missile programme. It can be situated near the border line to control strategic activities of neighbouring countries that may cause negative impact on Indian security concerns, by its influence on defence policy. Multi barrel system contributes to enlarged attack capacity.India's relations, especially with boundary joined countries have not been passing through a reliable and safe phase and so, the proof of India's capacity in scientific research and development will help control situations.
Lunar Eclipse:-occurs when Earth's shadow blocks the suns light i.e. sun , earth and moon are in a straight line which happens onlly once a month. So why not lunar eclipse every month because usually shadow of earth falls above or below the moon surface when it fall exactly on moon sarface then lunar eclipse occurs.
so lunar eclipse is visible only in that half portion of earth whish have night. It means you can not see lunar eclipse in day time. Lunar eclipse occurs only on that part of earth which have full moon night because Moon has to be behind Earth for full moon - that's when we see the biggest part of it . Another question arises that why moon appears to be red during lunar eclipse
its answer lies in dispersion of shorter wavelength in atmosphere only longer wavelength reaches us . If earth has no atmosphere then moon looks copletely black in eclipse.
Solar eclipse :-A Solar Eclipse occurs when the moon goes in front of the sun and blocks most of the sun's light from the earth. During a total eclipse all you can see from earth is a ring of light around the moon which is part of the sun the moon did not cover. It is dangerous to look at a solar eclipse directly, even if you have sun glasses or smoked glass. It is better to view solar eclipses through a pin hole projector.
Black hole:- A celestial body whose surface gravity is so strong that not even light can escape once trapped. a black hole is invisible So if light cannot escape, nothing else can.
Comet:-A comet is a small member of the solar system made up of rocky material held together by frozen gases When a comet approaches the sun its tail is following. When it moves away from the sun its tail is leading the comet.
Constellation :-A constellation is a group of stars visible within a particular region of the night sky. Some were named after animals and some mythological characters. Some Constellations can be viewed after sunset and before sunrise . you can't see constellations during the day because the sun's light is too bright to see star light.on equator you can view all the constellations in a year. On North or South Pole, you will only be able to see the part of the sky above you.
Phases of moon :- Throughout each month the moon will change from a crescent shape to a full moon. The stages in between are called phases. After seven days the moon will change from a crescent to a half moon. For the next seven days the moon will change from being a half moon to a full moon. The reason why it has full and half moons depends on how the sunlight reflects off of the surface of the moon and how much of it we can see. The shadow on the moon always goes from east to west. The line that divides the part we can see from the dark part is called the terminator.
Meteor
A meteoroid that burns up as it passes through the Earths atmosphere is known as a meteor. If youve ever looked up at the sky at night and seen a streak of light or shooting star what you are actually seeing is a meteor.
Meteorite
A meteoroid that survives falling through the Earths atmosphere and colliding with the Earths surface is known as a meteorite.
Que what is a quasars and pulsars ?
Ans A pulsar is a rapidly spinning neutron star the remnant of a supernova explosion. It has a powerful magnetic field, shooting out jets of radiation that sweep across space like lighthouse beams when they line up with Earth they appear as a rapidly repeating burst of light. A quasar is in fact a distant galaxy with a fluctuating blaze of light and other radiations coming from its central regions. The activity in these galaxies is caused by a giant black hole at their very heart, pulling in material from its surroundings, tearing it to shreds and heating it up to tremendous temperatures before swallowing it up.
Measuring instruements
1. Hydrometer Measuring the density or relative density of liquids. Based on
floatation principle.
2. Magnetron Produces microwave. Used in ovens.
3. Actinometer Used to measure intensity of electromagnetic radiation
4. Altimeter Aneroid barometer for measuring altitude.
5. Bolometer For measuring heat radiation
6. Dasymeter Measuring density of gas
7. Galvanometer Used for detecting small electric currents.
8. Gyroscope Determine orientation in aircraft, ships etc.
9. Katharometer Measuring thermal conductivity
10. Manometer Measuring the pressure of a gas.
11. Nethoscope Determining the speed of celestial bodies.
12. Rectifier Converts AC into DC.
13. Tonometer Measures pitch of sound
14. Venturimeter Measures rate of flow of fluids
15. Udometer Rain guage.
QUESTIONS THAT ARE ASKED LAST YEAR IN UPSC IN GENERAL SCIENCE
1. Copyright and Trade-mark
Copyright is one of the creative Intellectual Property Rights and protects creative or artistic works. Copyright applies on literative, music, art, painting, etc.
A Trademark is a type of intellectual property represented by a distinctive sign or indicator of some kind used by an individual, business organization or other legal entity to identify uniquely the source of its products or services to consumer.
2. TIFAC
Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC) is an autonomous organization under the Department of Science and Technology, established in February 1988.
TIFAC aims to keep a technology watch on global trends, and formulating preferred technology options for India.
3. Aspartame
The artificial sweetener aspartame has been the subject of public controversy regarding its safety and the circumstances around its approval.
The US Food and Drug Administration states that the safety of aspartame is "clear cut".
4. Gene doping
Gene doping is defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency as "the non-therapeutic use of cells, genes, genetic elements, or of the modulation of gene-expression, having the capacity to improve athletic performance."
5. Sappan
Sappan Wood or East Indian real wood is a multipurpose tree. It is a small thorny spreading tree that up to 10m in height and the wood reaches 15-30 cm in diameter.
In India it is cultivated in gardens and nurseries as a live fence plants in parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal
6. IPCC Report on Global Warning:
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperature, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global mean sea level.
The report said man-made emissions of greenhouse gases can already be blamed for fewer cold days, hotter nights, heat waves, floods and heavy rains, devasting drought, and an increase in hurricane and tropical-storm strengths.
7.What is firewall?
It is a technique related to security regarding computers. It allows only those programs to the computer which are permitted and restrict any other unwanted command and data.
8.What is malware?
This software is made to harm any computer system. Computer users are unknown to the term malware and many a times they miSunderstand it with virus.
9.Discuss the missile technology initiatives undertaken by India.
(i) MPEG: Moving Picture Expert Group.
(ii) HTML : Hyper Text Markup Language.
(iii) ASCII : American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
10.What is Root Kit?
By Root kit a special program is directed which can destroy the whole operation system and it can steal information from a group.
11.What is computer architecture?
Computer architecture is a computer technique which helps in various areas and subjects related to designing.
12.What do you understand by a search engine in computer?
Internet search engines (eg Google, AltaVista) help users find web pages on a given subject. The search engines maintain databases of web sites and use programs (often referred to as "spiders" or "robots") to collect information, which is then indexed by the search engine.
13. Expand the following
(i) CAD: Computer Aided Design
(ii) CAM: Computer Aided Manufacturing
(iii) CIM: Computer Integrated Manufacturing
14.Explain what is Thin Film Memory in computers?
Thin film memory is a high-sped variation of core memory developed by Sperry Rand in a government-funded research project. Instead of threading individual ferrite cores on wires, a thin film (4 millionths of an inch thick) of iron- nickel alloy (called permalloy) was deposited as small dots (using a mask) on small glass plates, by vacuum evaporation techniques.
15.Write a short note on Artificial Intelligence.
A branch of computer science that studies how to endow computers with capabili:ties of human intelligence. For example, speech recognition is a problem being worked on by A1 scientists.
16.Who are called Hackers in computer world?
A hacker is someone who creates and modifies computer software and computer hardware, including computer programming, administration, and security-related items.
The term usually bears strong connotations, but may be either favorable or denigrating depending on cultural context (see the Hacker definition controversy). Common definitions include.
17.What do you understand by E- governance?
E-governance refers to the use of information and communications technologies to improve the efficiency, effectiveness, transparency and accountability of government.
18.What is URL?
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator, the global address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web.
19.What do the following stand for?
(i) CD-ROM: Compact Disk-Read Only Memory
(ii) USB: Universal Serial Bus.
(iii) ITES: Information Technology Enabled Services.
(iv) FORTRAN: Formula Translator.
20.What do understand by MP3?
An audio compression technology that is part of the MPEG-1 and MPEG2specifications.
21.What are cyber crimes? How are these protected?
Cyber crimes consists of specific crimes dealing with computers and networks (such as hacking) and the facilitation of traditional crime through the use of computer (child pornography, hate crimes, telemarketing/ internet fraud). Cyber crimes can be protected by passing stringent laws, developing security codes and use of digital signatures.
22. What is 'Sympathetic Haptics'?
Sympathetic Haptics:
Sympathetic Haptics uses a data glove to sense the pressure being applied by a user to every part of that user's hand and fingers. The system can then broadcast those feelings over the Internet to another user wearing the same type of glove.
23. What are special features of 'Linux'?
Features of Linux are:
(i) Full multitasking and 32-bit support
(ii) GNU software support
(iii) TCP/IP networking support
(iv) Virtual memory and shared libraries.
24. What is an operating system? List the basic services provided by an operating system.
The operating system is the first program loaded into the computer as it boots, and it remains in memory at pull times thereafter. This is responsible for allocating system resources, including memory, processor time, disk space and peripheral devices such as printers, modems and the monitor.
25. What is an 'Internet Worm? Explain DDoS.
When a worm gains access to a computer (usually by breaking into it over the internet) it launches a programme which searches for other internet locations, infecting them if it can. At no time does the worm need user assistance (accidental or not) in order to operate its programming. Moreover, the worm travels over the internet, so all machines attached to an infected machine are at risk of attack. DDOS- Distributed Denial of Service
26. What do the following stand for?
(i) POSsIX: Portable Operating System Interface.
(ii) EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read only Memory.
(iii) MODEM: Modulator-Demodulator.
(iv) COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language.
27. What is a digital camera?
A digital camera has no film but a server converts light into an image that can be stored on a computer or printed out on a desktop printer.
28. What is firewall in computer Language?
Firewall is the safety valve for the computer not allowing others to reach the converted programmes.
29. What is multimedia?
Multimedia uses audio, video, virtual reality technique, telephony etc. at the same time.
30. What do the following stand for?
(i) HTML: Hyper Text Markup Language.
(ii) FTP: File Transfer Protocol.
(iii) MFLOPS: Million Floating Points Option Per Second.
(iv) PLANIT: Planit website has won 5 web awards.
31. What is Piracy?
Piracy is duplicating the original one and selling it through black marketing.
32.What is "handshake" in computer language?
In computer language 'handshake' is the sequence of messages exchanged between two or more network devices to ensure transmission synchronisation.
33What is "Ethernet" and what is it used for?
A baseband LAN (Local Area Network) specification invented by Xerox Corporation and developed jointly by Xerox, Intel and Digital Equipment Corporation. Ethernet networks operate at 10 Mbps using CSMA/CD to run over coaxial cable. Ethernet is similar to a series of standards produced by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers).
34.What is "digital signature" and what is it used for?
In business transaction, digital signature plays a function for digital documents. The increase in electronic commerce has made it a requirement. A digital signature system consists of two parts - a method of signing a document so that forgery is not possible, and a method of verifying that a signature was really generated by the person who it represents.
35.What do the following stand for?
(i) DRAM: Distributed Random Access Memory.
(ii) JPEG: Joint Photographic Expert's Group.
(iii) ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
(iv) IMAP: Image Map.
36.What is a WAP-enabled phone?
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)
is a technique used in telecommunication. In this technique a telephone is attached with a screen on which one see the image of the talking partner through this technique one can also access the WAP sites.
37.What are the prospects of CTBT?
If nuclear powers are ready to accept the national interest of other countries and willing to negotiate the terms, this CT&T would ensure the world peace even with nuclear powers.
38.Differentiate between Collective security and Cooperative security.
Collective security is for the Global concern including all the nations on common vital issues, i.e. environment space etc. Cooperative security is agreement between two or more nation in defence.
39.What do the following stand for?
(i) MARV: Multiple Airborne Re-entry Vehicles
(ii) MIRV: Multiple Independent targeted Re-entry Vehicles.
(iii) ICBM: Inter Continental Ballistic Missile.
40.Differentiate between Explosion and Implosion.
In explosion, energy is released by particles flowing outwards of the nucleus - i.e. Atom bomb. In implosion, energy is released by particles flowing inwards to the nucleus i.e. stars.
41.What does the 'clock speed' of a computer signify?
Clock speed refers to the rate of which the CPU clock operates. Measured in mhz or GHz. Faster the clock, faster the programme of operations.
42.What do the following stand for?
(i) HTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol.
(ii) CPU: Central Processing Unit.
(iii) ROM: Read Only Memory.
(iv) BIOS: Basic Input Output System.
43.What are a modern and what is it used for?
Modern stands for modulator demodulator. This device links a computer system and a telephone line to facilitate data transmission at high speed between two computers.
44.What is spamming?
It refers to junk mails. They proliferate despite many efforts to reduce them. Term is used for unsoldated commercial mails.
45.How does a computer virus destroy data?
A computer virus is active software. It enters a computer and damages or destroys data by its program.
46.What is modern? What is it used for?
Modern stands for modulator demodulator telephone line to facilitate data transmission at high speed between two computers. It converts analog data to digital vice-versa.
47.What is CNG? How can it reduce air pollution?
Comprehensive Natural Gas. Reduces emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and other pollutants, green house gases etc.
48.What is a computer virus? How does it infect systems?
Computer virus is a Software Programme which actively spreads and enters in computers to destroy or damage, data in the affected computers.
49.What do the following stand for?
(i)NISSAT: National Information System for Science and Technology.
(ii) GMRT: Giant Metre wave Radio Telescope.
(iii) INMAS: Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Science.
50.Where are the following located?
(i) Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology :Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
(ii) Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research: Kakpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
(iii) Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre: Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
51.How do identical twins differ from each other genetically?
Identical twins are 'minor image' of each other in their genetic composition and so their habits reflect it. One becomes lefty and other right handed and soon.
52.Why are transgenic organisms important?
Transgenic Organisms are created with desired ability and quality. In agriculture, such plant is made drought proof, resistible to any disorder. Livestocks are brought up through this technique which yields more milk meat and wool.
53.State the importance of Antrix Corporation.
Antrix Corporation is the Commercial branch of the ISRO. It sales scientific services related to the space technology and satellites in the international market earning valuable foreign currency for India.
54.Why is Website getting popular?
Website is the location where information is kept in the Internet. They give us easily and quickly information access. So, they are very popular now-a-days.
55.What do the following stand for?
(i) C-DAC: Centre for Development of Advanced Computing
(ii) ICMR: Indian Council of Medical Research
(iii) TRAI: Telecom Regulatory Authority of India.
56.Give the functions of interferons.
Interferons increases immunity of our body by producing antibodies. They are anti-viral proteins.
57.What is the difference between E-mail and FAX?
E-mail is electronic-mail used to send message between two computers via internet while fax prints the message on a paper by fax machine.
58.What is centchroman?
A contraceptive formulation developed and used in India. Though it is not approved by FDA for sale in the U.S. yet, is supposedly does not have any of the negative side effect.
59.What is ultrasonography?
Using more than 20,000 Hz frequency rays an image of internal part of body is recorded for medical and surgical user. This technique is known as ultrasonography.
60.What do the following stand for?
(i) C-DOT: Centre for Development of Telematics.
(ii) CGCRI: Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute.
(iii) INMAS: Institute of Nuclear medicine and Allied Science.
61.What is HIV? What does it cause?
HIV is Human Immuno deficiency Virus. It causes a disease Aids (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) which weakens immunity system of body.
62.Why does a lunar eclipse occur only on a full moon?
Only on a full moon day, the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, which is necessary for a lunar eclipse.
63.Where are the following located? (Give the name of the city and state)
(i) Central Drug Research Institute: Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
(ii) Space Application Centre: Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
(iii) Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research: Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
Rohit Garwal
* Dance Forms:
* the entire Himalayan region, from Kashmir to Darjeeling, folk dancers link arms and sway gracefully in undulating movements, celebrate the sowing of the wheat crop
* Dholak South asean two-headed hand drum
* have traditional cotton rope lacing, screw-turnbuckle tensioning or both combined
* a folk instrument, lacking the exact tuning and playing techniques of the tabla or the pakhawaj
* Women perform the Giddha, also characterised by its spontaneous energy
* Rajasthani women, their faces covered with flowing veils, are swirls of colour as they pirouette in the Ghoomar dance
* In Gujarat women perform the famous Garba, dancing in a circle with batons and rhythmic clapping
* It popularly performed during Navratri
* Garbha Deep - light in the inner sanctum of the temple or lamp inside a perforated earthen pot
* Their men perform the Dandiya Ras, a more vigorous version of the same dance, leaping and crouching in twirling pattern
* Lavani Dance combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the beats of Dholki
* noted for its powerful rhythm and erotic sentiment
* In the fishing communities of Maharashtra by women is notable for its unabashed sensuality
* Nautanki Rajasthan, UP, Bihar
* Bhavai Gujarath
* Tamasha Maharastra
* Jatra Bengali
* Yakshgana Karnataka
* Theyyam Kerala
* Kalaripayattu Kerala
* Lazim Maharastra
* Chhau dance Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar
* Major Dance Forms (7):
* the first references come from the Vedas where dance and music have their roots
* classical Sanskrit drama which was an amalgam of the spoken word, gestures and mime, choreography, stylised movement and music
* Excavations have brought to light a bronze statuette from Mohenjodaro and a broken torso from Harappa
* Dance is considered to be having three aspects : Natya, nritya, nritta
* Natya highlights the dramatic element
* Nritya is essentially expressional, performed specifically to convey the meaning of a theme or idea
* Nritta is pure dance where body movements do not express any mood
* Navarasas shringara, hasya, karuna, veera, roudra, bhayanak, bibhatsa, adbuta, shaanta
* Tandava - masculine, is heroic bold and vigorous
* Lasya the feminine is soft, lyrical and graceful
* Abhinaya (expression) is achieved through angika (body & limbs), vachika (song & speech), aharya(costume & adornment), satvika(moods & emotion)
* The two modes of presentation of Natya are:
* Natyadharmi Formalized presentation of theatre
* Lokadharmi folk, realistic, naturalistic or regional
* Style or vrittis are classified into 3 types:
* Kaishiki - deft lyrical more suited to convey the lasya aspects
* Arbati - the energetic masculine
* Satvaki - used while depicting the rasas and the Bharati, the literary content
* Bharatanatyam Tamil Nadu
* The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources of textual material, for the study of the technique and grammar of body movement in Bharatnatyam Dance
* It is known as Ekaharya(one dancer takes many roles in single performance)
* The style was kept alive by the devadasis (young girls 'gifted' by their parents to the temples and who were married to the gods)
* Nattuvanar the person who conducts the dance recitation
* It follow a regular pattern of steps:
* The first dance item is the alarippu (to adorn with flowers)
* Jatiswaram - short pure dance piece performed to the accompaniment of musical notes of any raga of Carnatic music
* Bharatnatyam leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance - the nritya
* Shabdam follows the jatiswaram the accompanying song is generally in adoration of the Supreme Being
* varnam which is the most important composition of the Bharatnatyam repertoire, encompasses both nritta and nritya and epitomises the essence of this classical dance form
* After the strenuous varnam, the dancer performs a number of abhinaya items expressing a variety of moods
* Bharatnatyam performance ends with a tillana which has its origin in the tarana of Hindustani music
* a vibrant dance performed to the accompaniment of musical syllables with a few lines of sahitya
* finale of the piece is a series of well designed rhythmic lines reaching a climax. The performance ends with a mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods
* Kathakali Kerala
* Only Kathakali give emphasis to the Natya aspect
* Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam has influence on kathakali in its form and technique
* blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories, which are mostly adapted from the Indian epics
* Four aspects of abhinaya (angika, aharya, vachika, satvika) combined perfectly
* Codified hastamudras and facial expressions, closely following the verses (padams) that are sung
* Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and refined
Types of characters based on Aharya (as per tenets laid down by natyashastra)
* In pacha, green colour dominates and kirita (headgear) is worn by all
* Indra, Arjuna and devas Pacha characters
* Kathi anti-heroes;
* Ravana, Kamsa, Sisupala kathi charaters (for ex)
* moustache and the small knob called chuttippu fixed on "the tip of the nose and another in the centre of the forehead, is peculiar kathi char
* Thadi (beard) Chuvanna(red), vellathadi (white), Karutha (black)
* Vellathadi characters like hanuman
* Kari make-up having a black base, black costume (hunter, dweller etc)
* Minukku women and sage characters
* Make up of kathakali classified into three types
* Teppu self done makeup
* Chuttikuthu makeup done by experts
* Uduthukettu wearing of huge bellowing skirts
* Tirasseela curtain held on the stage before the performance of main dancers
* No other dance style is the entire body used so completely as in Kathakali
* Kalasams pure dance sequences of actor to express himself and his skills
* Begins with Kelikottu calling audience for attention
* Todayam devotional no performed to invoke blessings of god
* Purappadu - nritta sequence following todayam
* Melappada musicians and drummers hold stage entertaining audience
* Tiranokku debut of all characters other than pacha or minukku
* Follows the particular scene choosen to play
* Music followed in kathakali traditional Sopana Sangeet
* Ilakiattam - part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to demonstrate their excellence in abhinaya
* Most part of the performance dancers engage in chodiattam - acting in strict conformity to the words in the padams sung by musicians
* Kuchipudi Andhra Pradesh
* Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh
* Yakshagana andhras long tradition of dance drama
* 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra Yogi
* It is said that Siddhendra Yogi had a dream in which Lord Krishna asked him to compose a dancedrama based on the myth of the bringing of paarijaata flower for Sathyabhaama Bhaamakalaapam
* Taarangam solo dancing inspired by Krishna-leela tarangini
* To show the dexterity of the dancers in footwork and their control and balance over their bodies, techniques like dancing on the rim of a brass plate and with a pitcher full of water on the head was introduced
* There are two forms of kuchipudi - traditional musical dance-drama and the solo dance
* Steps of a kuchipudi dance
* recital of Kuchipudi begins with an invocatory number, as is done in some other classical dance styles (Earlier only Ganesh Vandana now other gods also)
* followed by nritta, that is, non-narrative and abstract dancing
* Usually jatiswaram is performed as the nritta number
* Next is presented a narrative number called shabdam
* One of the favorite traditional shabdam is Dashaavataara
* Shabdam is followed by a natya number called Kalaapam
* entry of Satyabhama from the traditional dance-drama Bhaamaakalaapam
* Next in the sequence comes a pure nrityaabhinaya number based on literary-cum musical forms like padam, jaavli, shlokam, etc
* Eeach of the sung words is delineated in space through dance (Drishya-kavita)
* Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with tarangam
* Excerpts of Krishna-leela-tarangini are sung with this number
* In this the dancer usually stands on brass plate locking feet in shakatavadanam paada & moves plate rhythmically with great dexterity
* Kathak UP
* Kathak katha (a story) kathakars (story-tellers)
* It probably started as an oral tradition mimea & gestures added later to make it eff
* Raslila Important development of Kathak mainly in Braj region (Mathura, UP)
* It combined in itself music, dance and the narrative
* Dance in Raslila is an extension of basic mimes and gestures of kathakars
* The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal and vertical axis
* The full foot contact is of prime importance where only the toe or the ball of the foot are used, their function is limited
* There are no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or lower part of the body
* Dance sequences
* Dancer commences with a sequence That - soft gliding movements of the neck, eyebrows and the wrists, are introduced
* Followed by conventional formal entry known as the Amad (entry) and the Salami (salutation)
* Then follow the various combinations of rhythmic passages all punctuated with and culminating in a number of pirouettes
* The nritta portion of Kathak is performed to the nagma
* In the mime portions (nritya or abhinaya), words are not used in simple numbers called the gata, which is performed in a lyrical manner to gentle rhythm
* These are short narrative pieces which portray a brief episode from Krishna's life
* The interpretative and the abstract dance techniques are interwoven into each other, and the dancer's greatness lies in his capacity for improvisation on the melodic and metric line on the one hand and the poetic line on the other
* Kathak is the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture representing the unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art
* Odissi Orissa
* In Natyashastra south-eastern style mentioned as Odra Magadha precursor of odissi
* Maharis original temple dancers centuries ago
* Gotipuas a class of boys trained in the art, who danced in temples and also general
* Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas
* Two basic postures of odissi are chowk and tribhanga
* Chowk - position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced
* Tribhanga - very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees
* Bhangis - units of movement ending in one particular stance
* Steps of dance sequence are
* Opening item is Mangalacharan where the dancer slowly enters the stage with flowers in her hands and makes an offering to mother earth
* followed by an invocation to the deity of the dancer's choice (gen. ganesha)
* Item ends with nritta seq with salutations to God, Guru & audience
* next item is called Batu where the basic concepts of the Odissi nritta technique are highlighted bringing out the duality of the masculine and the feminine through the basic stance of the chauk and tribhanga
* This is danced in praise of batukeshwar Bhairav or Shiva
* After this comes flowering and ornamentation of music and movements in Pallavi
* followed by the rendering of abhinaya
* Here dance of Ashtapadis(Jayadevas Gita govinda) was performed
* The concluding item of the repertoire, which may consist of more than one pallavi and items based on abhinaya, is called moksha
* Manipuri Manipur
* Manipur have been protected from outside influences, and this region has been able to retain its unique traditional culture
* It is performed as a ceremonial offering while Lai Haraoba (Merrymaking of gods) festival
* Popular forms of Manipur dance Ras, Sankirtana and Thang-Ta
* Ras costume consists of a richly embroidered stiff skirt which extends to the feet
* In Sankirtana, male dancers play the Pung and Kartal while dancing
* In Thang-Ta, martial dances of Manipur (swords, spears and shields) is performed
* Manipuri dance incorporates both the tandava and lasya
* Manipuri abhinaya does not play up the mukhabhinaya very much but there is use of whole body to convey certain rasa sarvangabhinaya
* Rhythmic complexities are usually overlooked as the dancers do not wear ankle bells to stamp out the rhythms in a theatrical display, as this interferes with the delicate body movements
* Nat Manipuri classical style of singing
* Sattriya Assam
* This dance form was introduced by vaishnavite saint Mahapurusha Sankaradeva
* For centuries, nurtured and preserved with great commitment by the Sattras i.e. Vaishnava maths or monasteries
* Ojapali dances (folk dance) are still prevalent in Assam
* Two forms Sukanni(Maroi) Ojapali (Sakti cult) & Vyah Ojapali(Vaishnava cult)
* The dancers in a Oja paali chorus not only sing and dance but also explain the narration by gestures and stylized movements
* As far as Devadasi dance is concerned, resemblance of a good number of rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork with Sattriya dance is a clear indication of the influence of the Devadasi on Sattriya
* Other visible influences on Sattriya dance are those from Assamese folk dances namely Bihu, Bodos etc. Many hand gestures and rhythmic syllables are strikingly similar in these dance forms
* Sattriya dance is laid down with respect to hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music
Music of India:
* Hindustani Classic Music
* Music of India was more or less uniform before the 13th century. Later it bifurcated into the two musical systems
* Two systems of classical music Hindustani , Carnatic
* Carnatic music is confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala
* The classical music of the rest of the country goes under the name, Hindustani Classical Music
* grama is itself perhaps derivable from the idea of group or sect: a village, for instance. This probably lead to a set of svaras or notes being called grama
* There were two gramas prevalent
* Shadja and Madhyama Grama
* The difference between the two was only in one note, the panchama
* The panchama in madhyama grama was one sruti lower than the panchama in shadja grama
* sruti thus is the unit of measure or small difference between the various consecutive pitches within a grama or a scale
* For all practical purposes they are said to be 22 in number
* The subsidiary scales derived from each grama are called moorcchanas
* There are seven basic notes in a scale, hence there can be seven moorcchanas
* In the Natya Shastra of Bharata are found descriptions of melodic forms called jati
* Every one of these jatis could be put in some moorcchana or the other
* They were distinguished by chars like graha(starting pt) nyasa(note on which phrase stops), range of notes from low to high pitch and so on
* Tala is a cyclic arrangement of time units
* The basic units of time division are laghu, guru, and pluta
* Laghu comprises one syllable,guru two, and pluta three
* A theka is the definition of a tala by the stroke of a table
* Each stroke on the drum has a name called a bol or syllable. For instance, dha, ta, ghe. Etc
* Anibaddha sangeeta is one which is not restricted by meaningful words and tala. It is a free improvisation
* Alaap is the finest form of Anibaddha sangeeta
* Nibaddha Sangeeta closed or bound form of music
* prabandha is often used as a generic term to indicate any nibaddha song
* They were set to definite ragas and talas
* Dhrupad Form of Nibaddha Sangeet
* It is believed to be an elaboration of prabandha structure
* Its name is derived from Dhruv and pada(verse)
* It denotes both verse form of poetry and the style in which it is sung
* In structure dhrupad has two parts, the anibaddha section and the sanchari dhrupad proper
* The first is a free alap
* The dhrupad proper is a song in four parts: the asthayee, the antara, the Sanchari and the abhoga
* The instruments Been and Pakhawaj were closely associated with the dhrupad
* Present day place in Hindustani music is occupied by Khyal (imagination)
* Scholars believe its roots in ancient Indian roopaka alaps
* Two types Vilambit (slow) and Drut (fast) khyal
* Comparable to the vanis of the dhrupads, we have gharanas, in the khyal.
* Thumri It is a love song and hence the textual beauty is very important
* Very lyrical in its structure and presentation
* Two styles of thumri singing Poorab or Banaras (slow), Punjab style
* Tappa It consists of songs uttered in fast note patterns
* It is a difficult composition and needs much practice
* Musical Instruments of India
* In Natyashastra (by Bharata muni) divided musical instruments into four types
* Tata vadya or chordophones stringed instruments
* Sushira vadya or aerophones wind instruments
* Avanaddha vadya or membranophones percussion instruments
* Ghana vadya or Idiophones solid instruments which dont require tuning
* Tata vadya
* Veena types Ekatantri and sata-tantri etc. and Chitra (seven strings), Vipanchi(9 strings)
* Santoor stringed instrument similar to Sata-tantri veena famous in J&K
* Bowed instruments are usually used as an accompaniment to vocal music Geetaguna
* Divided into two categories upright and inverted
* Upright - fingerboard is held straight up as in the case of Sarangi
* Inverted - he board or resonator is held towards the shoulder and the fingerboard dandi is held across the arm of the player as in the case of the Ravanhastaveena, the Banam, the Violin
* Kamaicha
* bowed lute played by the manganiars of west Rajasthan
* Whole instrument is one piece of wood, the spherical bowl extending into a neck and fingerboard
* Resonator is covered with leather and the upper portion with wood with four main strings & no of subsidiary ones passing through thin bridge
* Different parts of stringed instruments
* resonator- Toomba of most stringed instruments is either made of wood or from a specially grown gourd
* Over toomba there is a wooden plate known as Tabli
* The resonator is attached to the fingerboard-Danda at the top end of which are inserted the pegs Khoontis, for tuning the instrument
* On the Tabli there is a bridge made of ivory or bone
* The main strings pass over the bridge, some instruments also have a number of sympathetic strings below the main strings (Tarab)
* Some stringed instruments are plucked with the fingers or by using a small plectrum called the Kona
* Sushira Vadya
* Sound is produced by blowing air into an hollow column flutes, Reed Instr.
* There is reference in the Vedas to an instrument-the Venu
* Used as an accompaniment to chanting and recitation
* Flutes
* Single or double flutes with only one hollow tube with finger holes for controlling the pitch of the note are very common
* Long horizontal flutes with a larger diameter are used to play slow passages such as Alap of the lower registers
* Smaller and shorter flutes, sometimes held vertically, are used for Taans, the faster passages, and also for producing higher pitches of sound
* The double flutes are mostly played by musicians of the tribal and rural areas and are rarely found on the concert platform
* Reed Instruments (Shehnai, nadaswaram)
* have one or two reeds inserted in the hollow beak or tube of the instrument, these vibrate when air is blown into them
* Shehnai is a reed instrument in which there are seven holes along the tube which are used for playing the melody
* Ustad Bismillah Khan is credited for popularizing this instr.
* Avanaddha Vadya
* Sound is produced by striking the animal skin which has been stretched across an earthern or metal pot or a wooden barrel or frame
* Types of these drum family - Oordhwaka, Ankya, Alingya and the waisted or the Damaru
* Oordhwaka - drums are placed vertically before the musician and sound is produced by striking them with sticks or the fingers
* Tabla pair or chenda
* Tabla
* right side is called the Tabla and the left, the Bayan or Dagga
* Tabla has a wooden body with a covering of animal skin, this is held together with leather straps
* Between straps and wooden body, oblong wooden blocks are placed
* There is a syahi paste applied in the centre of the animal skin
* The tabla can be tuned accurately by striking the rims with a hammer
* Ankya
* Ankya drums are held horizontally before the musician and usually both sides are covered with animal hide
* Sound is produced by striking both sides with sticks or fingers
* Mridangam, Pakhawaj, Khol, etc
* Alingya
* These drums have the animal hide fixed to a wooden round frame and are embraced or held close to the body with one hand while the other hand is used for playing on the instrument
* Duff, Dufflies, etc
* Damaru (waist drum)
* It ranges from small Huddaka of Himachal Pradesh to the larger instrument known as Timila of the southern region
* Ghana Vadya
* earliest instruments invented by man are said to be the Ghana Vadya
* Once constructed, this variety of instrument do not need special tuning prior to playing
* pots and pans, jhanj, falams, etc
Theatre Forms of India:
* Traditional theatre forms of India
* Traditional theatre forms incorporate not only the common mans interests but there is also a classical element in them
* In traditional theatre forms there are special styles of dance portraying the entry on to the stage or platform, narrative and descriptive roles
* In traditional theatre forms there are certain conventions of presentations depending upon and changing according to the form and size of the stage or the platform and other available situations
* No formal setup governing entry and exit of actors
* Depending on the situation or context, the actors enter into the stage and enact their role without being formally introduced
* After a particular event or incident is over, all the artists make an exit
* Traditional theatre forms have definitely been influenced by industrial civilization, industrialization, and urbanization
* Characters keep changing their place on the stage to be more impressive and to give the situation a greater significance
* Nautanki Traditional theatre centre in Kanpur
* Different forms of Traditional Theatre
* Bidapat Naach
* emphasis is not on beauty but on acting itself and narrative and descriptive skills
* Bhand Jashn
* The art of making the entry by dancing has been perfected in this J&K theatre form
* The way each character walks and enters the platform, identifies him
* Bhand Pather
* Traditional theatre form of Kashmir; combination of dance, music & acting
* Satire, wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter
* Swang
* Mainly music based, gradually prose too
* The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa alongwith the development of character can be seen in this theatre form
* Two styles Rohtak(lang Haryanvi) and Haathras(lang Brajbhasha)
* Nautanki
* Popular traditional centre in UP in Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras
* Meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel
* Previously only men acted, but now-a-days women also started
* Raasleela
* Based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends
* Nand Das wrote the initial plays based on the life of Krishna
* Bhavai
* Traditional theatre form of Gujarat(Kutch and Kathiawar)
* Instr used in Bhavai bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera
* Rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments
* Jatra (Bengal)
* Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's influence
* Earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were added at later stage
* Maach (MP)
* Maach is used for the stage itself as also for the play
* In this theatre form songs are given prominence in between the dialogues
* Term for dialogue bol; rhyme in narration vanag; tunes of theatre rangat
* Bhaona (Assam)
* Presentation of Ankia Naat; cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can be seen
* Sutradhaar narrator of story (Begins in Sanskrit then Brajboli or Assamese)
* Tamaasha (Maharastra)
* Traditional folk evolved from Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan
* In tamaasha, female actress (Murki) is the chief exponent of dance movements
* Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid gestures make it possible to portray all the emotions through dance
* Dashavatar (Goa and Konkan regions)
* performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu
* Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood and papier mache
* Krishnattam (Kerala)
* Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive days
* The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana
* The episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna - his birth, childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good over evil
* Mudiyettu (Kerala)
* celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-December)
* performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess
* triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika
* Theyyam (Kerala)
* Gods dance; tradition of worshipping of spirits of ancestors, folk heroes, and deities of various diseases and ailments can be traced back to ancient times in South India
* Koodiayaattam (Kerala)
* The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor, Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those taking on women's roles
* The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or jesters are the protagonists
* Only Vidushak delivers the dialogues
* Yakshagana (Karnataka)
* Theatrical arts based on mythological stories
* The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati
* Therukoothu (TN)
* Means Street play; Mostly performed at the time of annual temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest
* there is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of Draupadi
* Kattiakaran, the Sutradhara of the Therukoothu performance, gives the gist of the play to the audience; Komali entertains the audience with his buffoonery
Puppet Forms of India:
* Puppet Forms
* Silappadikaaram - earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic
* Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place in traditional entertainment
* Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically handicapped students to develop their mental and physical faculties
* String Puppets
* String puppets or Marionettes - jointed limbs controlled by strings allow flexibility
* Kathputli (Rajasthan)
* accompanied by a highly dramatised version of the regional music
* Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips are some of the distinct facial features of these string puppets
* These puppets wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs
* Kundhei (Orissa)
* Orissa puppets have no legs but wear long flowing skirts
* They have more joints - more versatile, articulate and easy to manipulate
* puppeteers often hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to which strings are attached for manipulation
* Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
* They are styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana
* Gombeyatta puppet figures are highly stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees
* These puppets are manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop
* Bommalattam (TN)
* Bommalattam combine the techniques of both rod and string puppets
* They are made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring which the puppeteer wears like a crown on his head
* Bommalattam puppets are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate of all traditional Indian marionettes
* Shadow Puppets
* Shadow puppets are flat figures
* They are cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent
* They are pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it
* Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
* These puppets are mostly small in size
* he puppets however differ in size according to their social status, for instance, large size for kings and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants
* Tholu Bommalata (AP)
* puppets are large in size and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees
* Colored on both sides hence throw colored shadows on the screen
* music is dominantly influenced by the classical music of the region
* themes are drawn from Mahabharata and Ramayana and Puranas
* Ravanachhaya (Orissa)
* puppets are in one piece and have no joints
* They are not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen
* manipulation requires great dexterity, since there are no joints
* puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses
* Rod Puppets
* Putul Nautch (WB)
* Rod-puppets used to be of human size like the Bunraku puppets of Japan
* These puppets have mostly three joints (Head & hands joined to rod at neck)
* Yampuri (Bihar)
* These puppets are made of wood
* these puppets are in one piece and have no joints
* Glove Puppets
* head is made of either papier mache, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck
* the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb are the two arms of the puppet
* In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other
* Pavakoothu (Kerala)
* influence of Kathakali, the famous classical dance-drama of Kerala
* The manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of the puppet
* The musical instruments used during the performance are Chenda, Chengiloa, Ilathalam and Shankha the conch
Indian Literature:
* Ancient Indian Literature:
* Vedas Are essentially archetypal poetry of high literary value. They are mythical in nature and of symbolic language
* Yajna means worship of divine, co-ordination and giving (sacrifice)
* Division of contexts of vedas are twofold ritualistic injunction and discussions on meaning of vedic ritual and all that is related of it
* Purana (that which renews the old) illustrates and expound truth of the vedas
* No of puranas 18
* Classical Sanskrit Language
* Kavya more care on form, such as the style, figure of speech, conceits, descriptions, etc., and the story-theme is pushed to the background
* Pali Literature
* Pali is the archaic Sanskrit combination of various dialects
* Buddha gave sermons in Pali and the Tripitakas were written in Pali language
* Vinaya Pitaka monastic rules of the Order of Buddhist monks
* Sutta Pitaka collection of speeches and dialogues of Buddha
* Abhidamma Pitaka deals with ethics, psychology or theory of knowledge
* Dravidian Literature
* Indian languages speak four different speech families Austric, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and Indo-European
* Austric -
* Dravidian Literature Telugu, Tamil (oldest), Malayalam, Kannada
* Sino-Tibetan
* Indo-European
* Medieval Literature
* The powerful trend of medieval indian literature (1000 to 1800CE) is devotional (Bhakti)
* Basavanna, Allam Prabhu are bhakti poets of Kannada language
* Gyaneswar (Dhyaneswar) first and foremost bhakti poet in Marathi
* Eknath, Tukaram are other poets who cast their spell all over Maharashtra
* Kabir(Hindi), Namdev(Marathi), Guru Nanak(Punjabi) other famous poets
* Tulsidas, Surdas, Meera bhai belong to same period 15th to 16th century
* Women poets of Bhakti
* Ghosha, Lopamudra, Viswawara, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala, Romasha wrote few texts in vedas called as Brahmavadini (expounder of veda)
* Medieval Lit. by women -
* Songs of Buddhist Nuns Mutta, Ubiri, Mettika (Pali Lang)
* Alwar like Andal gave expression to their love for divine
* Lal ded (Muslim Poetess, Kashmiri) represented sant tradition of bakti
* They all wrote small lyrics or poems of devotional fervour, metaphysical depth, and with a spirit of dedication and utmost sincerity
* Other Trends
* Heroic poetry in Punjabi known as Kissa and Var
* Najabats Var Nadir Shah
* Love ballads Hir Ranjha Warris Shah (Muslim poet, Punjabi)
* Amir Khusro Sufi Poet exp. with Persian & Hindi (Hindavi) mix. poetry Urdu
* Modern Indian Literature
* Emergence of Nationalism
* Bankim Chandra chatterjee Durgesh Nandini, Anand Math
* Revivalism and reformism were natural corollaries of the newly emerging idea of nationalism
* Tagore made Federalism as important part of his concept of national ideology
* Mod Indian pluralism is multi-lingual, multi-cultural, secular, national-state conc
* Literature of Nationalism, Revivalism, Reformism
* Rangalal in Bengali, Mirza Ghalib in Urdu and Bharatendu Harishchandra in Hindi expressed themselves as the patriotic voice of that era
* MM Dutt wrote first modern epic in Indian language, and naturalized blank verse in Bengali
* First Tamil Novel(Pratap Mudaliyar Charitam Samuel Pillai), Telugu(Sri Rangaraja Charitra Krishnama Chetty), Malayalam(Indulekha Chandu menon
* Progressive Literature
* Chhayavad was challenged by a progressive school that came to be known as Pragativad (progressivism)
* Nagarjun was undisputedly the most powerful and noted Hindi poet of the progressive group
* The critical norms of progressive literature were established by the pioneer of this phase in Punjabi by Sant Singh Sekhon
* The progressive writers movement attracted the attention of eminent poets of Urdu, like Josh Malihabadi and Faiz Ahmad Faiz
* Dalit Literature
* Dalit movement was started in literature by Marathi, Gujarati and Kannada writes under the leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
* It came into the limelight because of progressive literature moving nearer to the downtrodden
* literature of militant protest against upper caste literature upholding Brahmanical values
* It challenges the tone and context of existing literary canons and decentralises the whole process of a literary movement
* It creates an alternative aesthetics and extends the linguistic and generic possibilities of literature
* The present-day crisis in India is the conflict between expediency and universality, and as a result, a large number of writers are in the process of identifying a pattern of problem-solving within the traditional system, vigorous enough to generate and sustain an indigenous process of modernization, which does not need readymade external solutions, and is in accord with indigenous needs and attitudes
* Some famous books:
* Natyashastra Bharata Muni (2nd century BC 2nd century AD)
* the date of the work is between the 2nd century B.C.E- 2nd century C.E
* Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda
* he has evolved this veda by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda
* Sangeeta Ratnakara SarangaDeva (13th century AD)
* Kamasutra Vatsayana
* Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvasiam, Abhigyana Shakuntalam Kalidasa
* Mricchakatika Sudraka
* Uttara-Ramacharitam Bhavabhuti
* Gitagovida Jayadeva
* Panchatantra Vishnu Sharma
* Hitopadesha Narayan Pandit
* Buddhacharita Aswagosha
* Gathasaptasathi Hala
* Ramcharitamanas Tulsidas
* Naurasnama Ibrahim II
* Advent of Printing Press in India William Carey at Serampore, Bengal
Indian Architecture:
* Indus Civilization
* Building activity during Indus valley Civilization
* Town planning was excellent, burnt bricks used, roads were wide and at right angles, city drains were laid out, corbelled arch and baths were constructed
* Two important remains of the oldest times are fortifications of the old Rajagriha town, in Bihar and the fortified capital of Sisupalgarh
* Lomas Rishi cave in the Barabar Hills of Bihar Ajivika sect during Asokha period
* Buddhist Architecture
* Chaitya Prayer hall; Vihara dwelling place for monks
* The Buddhist Stupa is another form of architecture, comprising a hemispherical dome, a solid structure into which one cannot enter
* The stupa is a glorified, beautified, enlarged funerary mound (once the resting place of the bones and ashes of a holy man)
* The railing and gateways at Bharhut, Sanchi and Bodh Gaya are the most famous in the north and at Amravati and Nagarjunakonda in the South
* On these surfaces are carved the favourite symbols of Buddhism, the lotus, elephant, bull, lion and horse and some of the Jataka stories of the previous births of Buddha, depicted in low relief with such exuberant details that they are considered a land-mark in the story of Indian art
* Temple Architecture
* Earliest structural temple still standing in its original condition is the one constructed at Aihole in Karnataka
* little structure built of huge almost boulder-like blocks of stones
* temple consists of a simple square cell (garbhagriha) or sanctum sanctorum, in front of which there is a covered verandah, a portico, which consists of four heavy pillars supporting a stone roof
* The entire structure is heavy, bulky and clumsy
* this was constructed near about 300 to 350 A.D
* The Ladkhan temple of Aihole belongs to about 5th century A.D
* Here the architect has tried to give attention to the circumambulation path which is enclosed by means of a wall allowing devotees to have pradakshana
* The Durga temple at Aihole is an apsidal temple of about 550 A.D. in which the architect has made immense improvements upon his previous attempts
* To make this construction doubly strong, he hit upon the 'idea of making brackets, an essential element in Hindu and Buddhist architecture in India and used much earlier in China; a slanting piece of stone emerging as it were from the pillars or posts, reaching out like an arm to hold the lintel or beam steadily
* This kind of construction is known by the architectural term, trabeate, as distinct from accurate which was later made use of by the Muslims
* Rock cut temples are found at Mahabalipuram known as Ratha (or Chariots)
* Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a famed University town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars
* Nalanda was an important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also yielded seals and sealings of great historical significance
* Vimana The temple tower over the main shrine in Orissa is one of the most glorious inventions of architecture in India and is functionally a much finer conception than the south Indian Gopuram
* chhatra or the crown on top of the spire or tower
* The round stone at the pinnacle of the horizontal slabs is amlaka
* The early Indian temple was provided with a flat roof and there was a problem of letting out accumulated rain water
* In the Aihole temples of Ladkhan and Durga, the roof slabs have been given a slant and these slabs of large stones which were used in the early Orissan temples
* Sun temple at Konark which was constructed by the eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha Varman (1250)
* vast & wonderful struct, magnificently conceived as a gigantic chariot
* Dravidian style of temple architecture
* from the 8th century to about the 13-14 century A.D
* Natamandaps dance halls
* Bhogamandapas hall of offerings
* Brihadesvara temple which was erected about 1000 A.D. is a contemporary of the Rajarani temple of Bhubaneswar
* structure is adorned with beautiful sculpture and paintings
* Dedicated to Shiva - consists of the sanctum sanctorum
* Kailasa temple at Ellora is in a class by itself because it is a rock-cut temple complex, which in many respects resembles the various rathas at Mahabalipuram
* constructed during the reign of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna
* gopuram, is the tower, an oblong quadrangle, sometimes a square, with a passage through the centre and is situated on the entrance gateway unlike in the north
* Khajuraho, twenty five miles North of Panna and twenty seven miles of Chhatarpur in Madhya Pradesh is an important place because of the exquisite temples built there by the Chandellas
* They are cruciform in plan with the long axis from East to West
* these temples have a soft texture and a most pleasing colour
* he temples at Khajuraho have a circumambulatory passage also
* Panchayatana - a temple that has a central shrine surrounded by four other shrines
* Chaunsat Yogini Temple the only temple made entirely of granite and dedicated to sixty four yoginis
* The Style/Shapes of temple architectures in India are
* Nagara - The tower/shikhar is beehive/curvilinear shaped
* Earliest Nagara temples are in Karnataka
* Galaganath at Pattadakal
* Dravida - The tower/shikhar consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions
* Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior
* Vesara Once common in Karnataka, which is a combination of two styles
* Classic Hindu temples of India and Southeast Asia, such as Angkor Wat, Brihadisvara, Khajuraho, Mukteshvara, and Prambanan
* Indo-Islamic Architecture:
* The most important factors common to both forms of architecture, especially in respect of mosques and temples, were that to both styles, ornamental decoration was very vital and that the open court in many cases was surrounded by colonnades
* The prayer chamber of the mosque was spacious, whereas the shrine of the temple was comparatively small
* Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque - Qutub-ud-din Aibak
* Qutub Minar of Mehrauli started by Qutubuddin 1199 & compl by Iltumish
* Alai Darwaja Allauddin Khilji
* Din-i-illahi New eclectic religion created by Akbar
* Agra Fort Akbar (1565-74)
* Panch mahal (fatehpur sikri, Agra) trabeate structure Akbar
* Foundation of Shahzanabad Shahjahan
* Red Fort irregular octagon 1639-48 Shahjahan
* Hawa Mahal Jaipur, Rajasthan Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh
Indian Sculpture
* Indus Civilization
* urban culture is the bust portrait of a bearded nobleman or high priest, from Mohenjodaro, weaving a shawl with trefoil pattern
* It bears a close resemblance to a similar figure discovered in the Sumerian sites of Ur and Susa
* The figure of a male dancer belonging to the same period and discovered at Harappa almost 5000 years ago
* The bronze dancing girl of the same period discovered at Mohenjodaro is perhaps the greatest surviving achievement of the metal work of the Harappan age
* The art is of bronze casting in the cire perdue or lost-wax process
* The terracotta figure representing a bull is a forceful representation, eloquently proclaiming the special study of the anatomy of the animal by the modeller who fashioned the figure
* The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right and there is a cord around the neck
* Large number of seals made of steatite, terracotta and copper are found in excavations
* Seal of Pashupati - a seated figure of a Yogi, probably Shiva Pashupati, surrounded by four animals - a rhino, a buffalo, an elephant and a tiger
* Buddhist Sculpture
* Ashokas work Lion-capital at Sarnath
* It represents four roaring lions back to back facing the four cardinal directions
* The round abacus is decorated with four dharmachakras or wheels of law, alternating with an elephant, a bull, a horse and a lion, all carved with masterly skill
* The abacus is supported by a bell-shaped base consisting of a lotus with dharmachakra
* Buddha is never represented in human form in Buddhist art before the Christian era, as his spirituality was considered too abstract for the purpose
* The adherents of the Buddhist faith followed the Hinayana path as a means of attaining salvation
* Buddha's presence in early Indian art is, therefore, suggested by symbols like the Bodhi tree under which he attained enlightenment, the wheel of law, his foot prints, the royal umbrella, the stupa and an empty throne, etc
* Sanchi stupa - It is a solid structural dome raised on a terrace and surmounted by a railed pavilion from which rises the shaft of the crowning umbrella
* The stupa was originally a mud funerary mound enshrining in its core the sacred relics of the Buddha or his disciples, such as hair, bits of bones, etc
* The present stupa at Sanchi was originally constructed during Ashoka's reign but was considerably enlarged and the circum- ambulatory enclosure as well as the outer enclosures was added in the 1st century B.C
* relief medallion from Amravati belonging to the second century A.D. is a masterly representation of a scene showing the subjugation or taming of Nalagiri, a mad elephant let loose on the Buddha in the streets of Rajagriha by his wicked cousin, Devadatta
* After alexander invasion (326BC), a distinct style of sculpture Greco-Roman, Buddhist or Gandhara art emerged
* It was a product of the combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements
* Buddha who was hitherto designated only by a symbol, was conceived in human form
* The Gandhara image might seem to resemble Apollo in some extraneous forms and does look characteristically Greco-Roman in drapery
* Buddha is one who has attained the enlightenment of supreme knowledge, while the Bodhisattava is still a candidate for it
* Gupta Sculpture
* Red sandstone image of the Buddha from Mathura
* remarkable example of Gupta workmanship datable to the 5th century A.D
* Right hand in Abhayamudra(assuring protection) & left holding the hem of garment
* The image of the standing Buddha is an excellent example of Gupta art in its maturity from Sarnath
* Dharmachakrapravartana Mudra The gesture of preaching
* A magnificient repr. Of Vishnu belongs by Guptas like
* The typical gown vanamala
* the charming string of pearls twirled round the neck, the long and elegant yagnopavita
* Medieval Sculpture
* The Pallava style concerns itself with a tall and slender physiognomical form. The thin and elongated limbs emphasise the tallness of the figure
* The female figures are much lighter in appearance, with their slender waists, narrow chests and shoulders, smaller breasts, sparse ornaments and garments and generally submissive attitude
* The figure sculpture of the Pallavas is natural in pose and modeling
* The front of the torso is almost flat, and the ornamentations simple in high relief
* Later Pallava sculpture shows greater details of workmanship, lighter anatomy and more developed artistic finishing
* Pala Style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery and conventional decoration
* Their sculptures from Bihar are somewhat thick set and heavier in their general proportions of limbs than those from Bengal
* The Pala rulers had intimate relations with Java which are evident in Hindu-Javanese sculpture, and painting of Nepal, Kashmir, Burma and Thailand
* Traditions of the marble sculpture of Gujarat in Western India are seen in the profusion of intricately carved sculptures which decorate the Jain temples at Mount Abu, Girnar and Palitana
* Hoysala art
* The temples they built at Halebid and Belur look like lace work in stone
* The decoration is elaborate, the emphasis being more on ornamentation than movement or the grace of the human body
* Hoysala sculptures are somewhat squat and short, highly embellished, or almost over-loaded with ornamentation, but yet are pleasing to behold
* Modern Indian Sculpture
* the story of contemporary Indian sculpture is the story of a transition from academism to well-defined non-objectivism
* Contemporary Indian sculpture has not shown either the speed or variety of painting
* Nandalal Bose, Kshitindranath Majumdar are renowned pupils of Abanindranath Tagore
* Nandalal - n the painting of a woman in the act of doing 'Pranam' one sees both simplicity and directness of his pictorialism as also the significant impact on his work of the vitality of folk art
* Kshitindranath - known for his soft palette and the grace and lyrical quality of his drawing. He is almost unique in this respect
* Jamini Roy His images and ideas as in this painting of 'Pujarinis' are direct, singularly stylised, and conceived in emphatic flat spaces and strong lines
* K Sreenivasulu - greatly moved by folk art and rural life like Jamini Roy
* He drew much inspiration from the art heritage of South India, particularly from the mural tradition of Tanjavur and Lepakshi
* DP Roy Chowdhury renowned sculptor work Triumph of Labour
Paintings of India:
* Wall Paintings
* Primitive records of painting in India was dated to Neolithic man where records of wild animals, war processions and hunting scenes were picturesque
* Early mural paintings may be assumed to be the prototypes of the carved and painted picture galleries of the subsequent periods of the Buddhist art, such as in the painted cave temples of Ajanta situated in Maharashtra State near Aurangabad
* paintings of Ajanta, Bagh and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and the Deccan at its best
* Paintings of Sittannavasal connected with Jain themes and symbology
* Ellora
* composition of the paintings at Ellora is measured out in rectangular panels with thick borders
* The classical tradition of modelling of the mass and rounded soft outline as well as the illusion of the coming forward from the depth is not altogether ignored
* Sharp twist of the head, painted angular bents of the arms, the concave curve of the close limbs, the sharp projected nose and the long drawn open eyes characteristic feature
* Paintings at Lepakshi, Hindupur - paintings are pressed within broad friezes and illustrate Saivaite and secular themes
* Technique
* In Rajarajeshwara temple at Tanjore painting is done in a true fresco method over the surface of the rock
* Most of the colours were locally available
* Brushes were made up from the hair of animals, such as goat, camel, mongoose, etc
* The ground was coated with an exceedingly thin layer of lime plaster over which paintings were drawn in water colours
* In true fresco method the paintings are done when the surface wall is still wet so that the pigments go deep inside the wall surface
* Tempora or Fresco-secco method
* It is a method of painting on the lime plastered surface which has been allowed to dry first and then drenched with fresh lime water
* On surface thus obtained artist proceeds to sketch out his composition
* Miniature Paintings
* It has the flavor of Persian but has the inborn charm of Indian tradition
* The practice of signing pictures was started in miniature paintings from this period
* Pala Paintings
* Pala painting is characterised by sinuous line and subdued tones of colour
* Naturalistic style resembles contemporary bronze and stone sculpture reflects the feeling of classical art of Ajanta
* Western Indian Schools (15th century)
* motivating force for the artistic activity in Western India was Jainism
* The illustrations on these manuscripts are in a style of vigorous distortion
* This is an art of primitive vitality vigorous line and forceful colours
* Kulhadar Group
* This group includes illustrations of the 'Chaurapanchasika, Gita Govinda, the Bhagavata Purana and Ragamala
* style of these miniatures is marked by the use of brilliant contrasting colours, vigorous and angular drawing, transparent drapery
* conical caps 'Kulha' on which turbans are worn by the male figures
* Mughal paintings
* Babur-Nama, Akbar-Nama, Hamza-Nama, Razm-Nama are beautifully illustrated manuscripts of this period
* Mughal paintings are aristocratic, individualistic, strong in their character of portraiture, being forstered by and for nobility
* Mughal art peeped into the inner revelry of harem, court, wild bouts, depiction of elephant and camel fights appealed to emperor, scenes of hunting etc
* Modern Indian Paintings
* There was only some minor artistic expression in the intervening period by way of the 'Bazar' and 'Company' styles of painting
* apart from the more substantial folk forms which were alive in many parts of the country
* Raja Ravi Varma
* most remembered for his paintings of sari-clad women portrayed as shapely and graceful
* Renaissance or Revivalist school Bengal school by Abanindranath tagore
Old NCERT:
* Ancient India Literature
* Vedanga
* Siksha(phonetics), Kalpa(rituals), Vyakarna(grammar), Nirukta(etymology), Chhanda(metrics), Jyotisha(astronomy)
* Sutra
* precise and exact form of exp in prose which was dev by ancient Indians
* Ex Paninis Ashtadhyayi
* Later vedic literature
* Brahmanas elaborate on vedic rituals
* Aranyakas, Upanishads give discourse on diff spiritual & philo probs
* Sulvasutra presc measurements for sacrificial altars geometry, maths
* Srautasutra account of royal coronation ceremonies
* Grihyasutra domestic rituals with birth, naming, marriage, funeral etc
* Jain and Buddhist Lit
* Jain Prakrit (form of Sanskrit language)
* Buddhism Pali (Provides det of Contemporary Magadha kings, Ashokan edicts)
* Jataka stories Buddhist books 550 stories throws light on socio-economic conditions b/w 5BC 2BC
* Limitations of literary sources
* Printing was not known everything written on bark, palm leaf, paper etc
* Old manus fragile new copies manually copied errors, additions, mistakes
* Sangam Literature
* Tamil text kings and chiefs patronized poets
* These poets assemble in collages & compiled poems over 3-4 cent Sanga lit.
* Describe many kings and dynasties of South India
* Generally describes events upto 4th Century AD
* Poems written in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. They represent a heroic age of warriors and battles
* Songs are not primitive, show high quality of grammar
* It talked about how Yavans came in their own vessels, purchased pepper with gold, supplied wine and women to Indian rulers.
* Greek writers
* Megasthenese
* Greek ambassador (in CG Maurya court) Indika
* Indika provide valuable inf on Maurya Admin, social classes & eco activities
* Limitations of Indika
* Indika is not free from credulity and exaggerations
* Megasthenese had little understanding of Indian society and social sys
* Discrepancies because he didnt know any Ind lang, not part of society
* Herodotus - in his Histories gives us much information about Indo-Persian relations
* Arrian - det acc of inv of Ind by Alexander on basis of inf frm those who accompd camp
* Anonymous Periplus of Erythrean Sea gave valuable inf about Indian coasts
* Ptolemy wrote geographical treatise on India in 2nd Cent AD
* Limitations
* Most of Greek writings based on secondary sources resulted in no of errors
* Except for Megasthe all others touched Ind hist in true sense very marginally
* They were ignorant of lang & customs of country & inf is full of unbelive facts
* Works of Mega & others are lost and available only in fragments
* Chinese travelers
* Fa-hien 5th Cent AD desc soc-religious & eco cond of India in time of Guptas
* Hiuen-Tsang 7th Cent Age of Harshavardhana & some other contemp kings of N India
* I-tsing 7th Cent
* Limitations
* Hiuen-Tsang depicts Harsha as a follower of Buddhism but in his epigraphic records Harsha mentions himself as a devotee of Siva.
* Counter - Indian rulers always have, like their subjects, been multi-religious people, it is not difficult for a foreigner to be confused
* Arab Historian (Al-Beruni)
* Abu-Rihan Central Asia 973AD Contemporary of Mohd. Ghazni
* Al-Beruni studied Sanskrit lang & tried to gain a precise knowledge of Indian sources
* His observations range from philo, rel, cult, society to science, lit, art and medicine
* does not give any political information of his times
* comparatively free from religious or racial biases
* Archaeological Sources
* Mound elevated portion of land, covering remains of old habitations
* Vertical excavation helps uncover periodwise uncover of culture
* Horizontal Digging mound as a whole getting complete data of a site
* Very expensive, done at only few places
* Impact of climate on Mounds
* Dry Arid climate(Raj, West UP) better preserved
* Humid-Moist climate(Gangetic, Deltas) Iron tools suffer corrosion
* Only burnt brick structures can be detected
* Megaliths South Ind people buried their dead with tools, weapons, potteries etc. Such graves were encircled by a big piece of stone, called Megaliths.
* Carbon dating measure of decaying of C14 to C12 and identify no of years elapsed
* Inscriptions
* Ashokan inscriptions (in Brahmi script) are considered to be the earliest (3rd AD)
* Four scripts used in edicts Aramic, Greek (Afghan), Kharosthi(Pak), Brahmi(India)
* James Prinsep Made a complete chart of Ashokan Alphabets in 1837
* Sanskrit
* Most of the Gupta epigraphs give genealogy
* They took the opp to give an acc of their conquests and achievements of their predecessor including mythology of their origins
* Sanskrit came to occupy a prune place since the Gupta period
* Imp Inscriptions
* Junagarh Rock Rudradaman considered early ex of chaste Sanskrit, 2nd Cen AD
* Allahabad Pillar enumerates achievements of Samudragupta
* Aihole inscription Chalukya king Pulkeshin II gives a dynastic genealogy
* Gwalior inscr (Bhoja) gives full account of his predecessors & his achievements
* Acc to it Learned Brahmins are granted with land free of tax(Agraharas)
* Numismatics
* Punch marked
* Earliest coins, bear only symbols, dont bear inscription
* Found throughout the country from Taxila to Magadha to Mysore
* Made from silver and copper, some with gold(rare, authenticity doubtful)
* Indo-Greek
* Silver & copper, show beautiful artistic features, portrait of king appears real
* On the reverse side some deity is depicted
* From these coins we know that 40 Indo-Greek rulers ruled in NW region of India
* Kushanas
* Mostly gold and numerous copper,
* coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure of Siva standing beside a bull
* Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have this depiction on their coins
* Guptas
* Gold, indianised their coinage
* Kings depicted activities like hunting a lion or rhinoceros, holding bow or battle-axes, playing musical instr. Or performing ashwamedh yajna
by Gali Vinod Simha
* Dholak South asean two-headed hand drum
* have traditional cotton rope lacing, screw-turnbuckle tensioning or both combined
* a folk instrument, lacking the exact tuning and playing techniques of the tabla or the pakhawaj
* Women perform the Giddha, also characterised by its spontaneous energy
* Rajasthani women, their faces covered with flowing veils, are swirls of colour as they pirouette in the Ghoomar dance
* In Gujarat women perform the famous Garba, dancing in a circle with batons and rhythmic clapping
* It popularly performed during Navratri
* Garbha Deep - light in the inner sanctum of the temple or lamp inside a perforated earthen pot
* Their men perform the Dandiya Ras, a more vigorous version of the same dance, leaping and crouching in twirling pattern
* Lavani Dance combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the beats of Dholki
* noted for its powerful rhythm and erotic sentiment
* In the fishing communities of Maharashtra by women is notable for its unabashed sensuality
* Nautanki Rajasthan, UP, Bihar
* Bhavai Gujarath
* Tamasha Maharastra
* Jatra Bengali
* Yakshgana Karnataka
* Theyyam Kerala
* Kalaripayattu Kerala
* Lazim Maharastra
* Chhau dance Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar
* Major Dance Forms (7):
* the first references come from the Vedas where dance and music have their roots
* classical Sanskrit drama which was an amalgam of the spoken word, gestures and mime, choreography, stylised movement and music
* Excavations have brought to light a bronze statuette from Mohenjodaro and a broken torso from Harappa
* Dance is considered to be having three aspects : Natya, nritya, nritta
* Natya highlights the dramatic element
* Nritya is essentially expressional, performed specifically to convey the meaning of a theme or idea
* Nritta is pure dance where body movements do not express any mood
* Navarasas shringara, hasya, karuna, veera, roudra, bhayanak, bibhatsa, adbuta, shaanta
* Tandava - masculine, is heroic bold and vigorous
* Lasya the feminine is soft, lyrical and graceful
* Abhinaya (expression) is achieved through angika (body & limbs), vachika (song & speech), aharya(costume & adornment), satvika(moods & emotion)
* The two modes of presentation of Natya are:
* Natyadharmi Formalized presentation of theatre
* Lokadharmi folk, realistic, naturalistic or regional
* Style or vrittis are classified into 3 types:
* Kaishiki - deft lyrical more suited to convey the lasya aspects
* Arbati - the energetic masculine
* Satvaki - used while depicting the rasas and the Bharati, the literary content
* Bharatanatyam Tamil Nadu
* The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources of textual material, for the study of the technique and grammar of body movement in Bharatnatyam Dance
* It is known as Ekaharya(one dancer takes many roles in single performance)
* The style was kept alive by the devadasis (young girls 'gifted' by their parents to the temples and who were married to the gods)
* Nattuvanar the person who conducts the dance recitation
* It follow a regular pattern of steps:
* The first dance item is the alarippu (to adorn with flowers)
* Jatiswaram - short pure dance piece performed to the accompaniment of musical notes of any raga of Carnatic music
* Bharatnatyam leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance - the nritya
* Shabdam follows the jatiswaram the accompanying song is generally in adoration of the Supreme Being
* varnam which is the most important composition of the Bharatnatyam repertoire, encompasses both nritta and nritya and epitomises the essence of this classical dance form
* After the strenuous varnam, the dancer performs a number of abhinaya items expressing a variety of moods
* Bharatnatyam performance ends with a tillana which has its origin in the tarana of Hindustani music
* a vibrant dance performed to the accompaniment of musical syllables with a few lines of sahitya
* finale of the piece is a series of well designed rhythmic lines reaching a climax. The performance ends with a mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods
* Kathakali Kerala
* Only Kathakali give emphasis to the Natya aspect
* Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam has influence on kathakali in its form and technique
* blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories, which are mostly adapted from the Indian epics
* Four aspects of abhinaya (angika, aharya, vachika, satvika) combined perfectly
* Codified hastamudras and facial expressions, closely following the verses (padams) that are sung
* Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and refined
Types of characters based on Aharya (as per tenets laid down by natyashastra)
* In pacha, green colour dominates and kirita (headgear) is worn by all
* Indra, Arjuna and devas Pacha characters
* Kathi anti-heroes;
* Ravana, Kamsa, Sisupala kathi charaters (for ex)
* moustache and the small knob called chuttippu fixed on "the tip of the nose and another in the centre of the forehead, is peculiar kathi char
* Thadi (beard) Chuvanna(red), vellathadi (white), Karutha (black)
* Vellathadi characters like hanuman
* Kari make-up having a black base, black costume (hunter, dweller etc)
* Minukku women and sage characters
* Make up of kathakali classified into three types
* Teppu self done makeup
* Chuttikuthu makeup done by experts
* Uduthukettu wearing of huge bellowing skirts
* Tirasseela curtain held on the stage before the performance of main dancers
* No other dance style is the entire body used so completely as in Kathakali
* Kalasams pure dance sequences of actor to express himself and his skills
* Begins with Kelikottu calling audience for attention
* Todayam devotional no performed to invoke blessings of god
* Purappadu - nritta sequence following todayam
* Melappada musicians and drummers hold stage entertaining audience
* Tiranokku debut of all characters other than pacha or minukku
* Follows the particular scene choosen to play
* Music followed in kathakali traditional Sopana Sangeet
* Ilakiattam - part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to demonstrate their excellence in abhinaya
* Most part of the performance dancers engage in chodiattam - acting in strict conformity to the words in the padams sung by musicians
* Kuchipudi Andhra Pradesh
* Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh
* Yakshagana andhras long tradition of dance drama
* 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra Yogi
* It is said that Siddhendra Yogi had a dream in which Lord Krishna asked him to compose a dancedrama based on the myth of the bringing of paarijaata flower for Sathyabhaama Bhaamakalaapam
* Taarangam solo dancing inspired by Krishna-leela tarangini
* To show the dexterity of the dancers in footwork and their control and balance over their bodies, techniques like dancing on the rim of a brass plate and with a pitcher full of water on the head was introduced
* There are two forms of kuchipudi - traditional musical dance-drama and the solo dance
* Steps of a kuchipudi dance
* recital of Kuchipudi begins with an invocatory number, as is done in some other classical dance styles (Earlier only Ganesh Vandana now other gods also)
* followed by nritta, that is, non-narrative and abstract dancing
* Usually jatiswaram is performed as the nritta number
* Next is presented a narrative number called shabdam
* One of the favorite traditional shabdam is Dashaavataara
* Shabdam is followed by a natya number called Kalaapam
* entry of Satyabhama from the traditional dance-drama Bhaamaakalaapam
* Next in the sequence comes a pure nrityaabhinaya number based on literary-cum musical forms like padam, jaavli, shlokam, etc
* Eeach of the sung words is delineated in space through dance (Drishya-kavita)
* Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with tarangam
* Excerpts of Krishna-leela-tarangini are sung with this number
* In this the dancer usually stands on brass plate locking feet in shakatavadanam paada & moves plate rhythmically with great dexterity
* Kathak UP
* Kathak katha (a story) kathakars (story-tellers)
* It probably started as an oral tradition mimea & gestures added later to make it eff
* Raslila Important development of Kathak mainly in Braj region (Mathura, UP)
* It combined in itself music, dance and the narrative
* Dance in Raslila is an extension of basic mimes and gestures of kathakars
* The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal and vertical axis
* The full foot contact is of prime importance where only the toe or the ball of the foot are used, their function is limited
* There are no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or lower part of the body
* Dance sequences
* Dancer commences with a sequence That - soft gliding movements of the neck, eyebrows and the wrists, are introduced
* Followed by conventional formal entry known as the Amad (entry) and the Salami (salutation)
* Then follow the various combinations of rhythmic passages all punctuated with and culminating in a number of pirouettes
* The nritta portion of Kathak is performed to the nagma
* In the mime portions (nritya or abhinaya), words are not used in simple numbers called the gata, which is performed in a lyrical manner to gentle rhythm
* These are short narrative pieces which portray a brief episode from Krishna's life
* The interpretative and the abstract dance techniques are interwoven into each other, and the dancer's greatness lies in his capacity for improvisation on the melodic and metric line on the one hand and the poetic line on the other
* Kathak is the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture representing the unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art
* Odissi Orissa
* In Natyashastra south-eastern style mentioned as Odra Magadha precursor of odissi
* Maharis original temple dancers centuries ago
* Gotipuas a class of boys trained in the art, who danced in temples and also general
* Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas
* Two basic postures of odissi are chowk and tribhanga
* Chowk - position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced
* Tribhanga - very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees
* Bhangis - units of movement ending in one particular stance
* Steps of dance sequence are
* Opening item is Mangalacharan where the dancer slowly enters the stage with flowers in her hands and makes an offering to mother earth
* followed by an invocation to the deity of the dancer's choice (gen. ganesha)
* Item ends with nritta seq with salutations to God, Guru & audience
* next item is called Batu where the basic concepts of the Odissi nritta technique are highlighted bringing out the duality of the masculine and the feminine through the basic stance of the chauk and tribhanga
* This is danced in praise of batukeshwar Bhairav or Shiva
* After this comes flowering and ornamentation of music and movements in Pallavi
* followed by the rendering of abhinaya
* Here dance of Ashtapadis(Jayadevas Gita govinda) was performed
* The concluding item of the repertoire, which may consist of more than one pallavi and items based on abhinaya, is called moksha
* Manipuri Manipur
* Manipur have been protected from outside influences, and this region has been able to retain its unique traditional culture
* It is performed as a ceremonial offering while Lai Haraoba (Merrymaking of gods) festival
* Popular forms of Manipur dance Ras, Sankirtana and Thang-Ta
* Ras costume consists of a richly embroidered stiff skirt which extends to the feet
* In Sankirtana, male dancers play the Pung and Kartal while dancing
* In Thang-Ta, martial dances of Manipur (swords, spears and shields) is performed
* Manipuri dance incorporates both the tandava and lasya
* Manipuri abhinaya does not play up the mukhabhinaya very much but there is use of whole body to convey certain rasa sarvangabhinaya
* Rhythmic complexities are usually overlooked as the dancers do not wear ankle bells to stamp out the rhythms in a theatrical display, as this interferes with the delicate body movements
* Nat Manipuri classical style of singing
* Sattriya Assam
* This dance form was introduced by vaishnavite saint Mahapurusha Sankaradeva
* For centuries, nurtured and preserved with great commitment by the Sattras i.e. Vaishnava maths or monasteries
* Ojapali dances (folk dance) are still prevalent in Assam
* Two forms Sukanni(Maroi) Ojapali (Sakti cult) & Vyah Ojapali(Vaishnava cult)
* The dancers in a Oja paali chorus not only sing and dance but also explain the narration by gestures and stylized movements
* As far as Devadasi dance is concerned, resemblance of a good number of rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork with Sattriya dance is a clear indication of the influence of the Devadasi on Sattriya
* Other visible influences on Sattriya dance are those from Assamese folk dances namely Bihu, Bodos etc. Many hand gestures and rhythmic syllables are strikingly similar in these dance forms
* Sattriya dance is laid down with respect to hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music
Music of India:
* Hindustani Classic Music
* Music of India was more or less uniform before the 13th century. Later it bifurcated into the two musical systems
* Two systems of classical music Hindustani , Carnatic
* Carnatic music is confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala
* The classical music of the rest of the country goes under the name, Hindustani Classical Music
* grama is itself perhaps derivable from the idea of group or sect: a village, for instance. This probably lead to a set of svaras or notes being called grama
* There were two gramas prevalent
* Shadja and Madhyama Grama
* The difference between the two was only in one note, the panchama
* The panchama in madhyama grama was one sruti lower than the panchama in shadja grama
* sruti thus is the unit of measure or small difference between the various consecutive pitches within a grama or a scale
* For all practical purposes they are said to be 22 in number
* The subsidiary scales derived from each grama are called moorcchanas
* There are seven basic notes in a scale, hence there can be seven moorcchanas
* In the Natya Shastra of Bharata are found descriptions of melodic forms called jati
* Every one of these jatis could be put in some moorcchana or the other
* They were distinguished by chars like graha(starting pt) nyasa(note on which phrase stops), range of notes from low to high pitch and so on
* Tala is a cyclic arrangement of time units
* The basic units of time division are laghu, guru, and pluta
* Laghu comprises one syllable,guru two, and pluta three
* A theka is the definition of a tala by the stroke of a table
* Each stroke on the drum has a name called a bol or syllable. For instance, dha, ta, ghe. Etc
* Anibaddha sangeeta is one which is not restricted by meaningful words and tala. It is a free improvisation
* Alaap is the finest form of Anibaddha sangeeta
* Nibaddha Sangeeta closed or bound form of music
* prabandha is often used as a generic term to indicate any nibaddha song
* They were set to definite ragas and talas
* Dhrupad Form of Nibaddha Sangeet
* It is believed to be an elaboration of prabandha structure
* Its name is derived from Dhruv and pada(verse)
* It denotes both verse form of poetry and the style in which it is sung
* In structure dhrupad has two parts, the anibaddha section and the sanchari dhrupad proper
* The first is a free alap
* The dhrupad proper is a song in four parts: the asthayee, the antara, the Sanchari and the abhoga
* The instruments Been and Pakhawaj were closely associated with the dhrupad
* Present day place in Hindustani music is occupied by Khyal (imagination)
* Scholars believe its roots in ancient Indian roopaka alaps
* Two types Vilambit (slow) and Drut (fast) khyal
* Comparable to the vanis of the dhrupads, we have gharanas, in the khyal.
* Thumri It is a love song and hence the textual beauty is very important
* Very lyrical in its structure and presentation
* Two styles of thumri singing Poorab or Banaras (slow), Punjab style
* Tappa It consists of songs uttered in fast note patterns
* It is a difficult composition and needs much practice
* Musical Instruments of India
* In Natyashastra (by Bharata muni) divided musical instruments into four types
* Tata vadya or chordophones stringed instruments
* Sushira vadya or aerophones wind instruments
* Avanaddha vadya or membranophones percussion instruments
* Ghana vadya or Idiophones solid instruments which dont require tuning
* Tata vadya
* Veena types Ekatantri and sata-tantri etc. and Chitra (seven strings), Vipanchi(9 strings)
* Santoor stringed instrument similar to Sata-tantri veena famous in J&K
* Bowed instruments are usually used as an accompaniment to vocal music Geetaguna
* Divided into two categories upright and inverted
* Upright - fingerboard is held straight up as in the case of Sarangi
* Inverted - he board or resonator is held towards the shoulder and the fingerboard dandi is held across the arm of the player as in the case of the Ravanhastaveena, the Banam, the Violin
* Kamaicha
* bowed lute played by the manganiars of west Rajasthan
* Whole instrument is one piece of wood, the spherical bowl extending into a neck and fingerboard
* Resonator is covered with leather and the upper portion with wood with four main strings & no of subsidiary ones passing through thin bridge
* Different parts of stringed instruments
* resonator- Toomba of most stringed instruments is either made of wood or from a specially grown gourd
* Over toomba there is a wooden plate known as Tabli
* The resonator is attached to the fingerboard-Danda at the top end of which are inserted the pegs Khoontis, for tuning the instrument
* On the Tabli there is a bridge made of ivory or bone
* The main strings pass over the bridge, some instruments also have a number of sympathetic strings below the main strings (Tarab)
* Some stringed instruments are plucked with the fingers or by using a small plectrum called the Kona
* Sushira Vadya
* Sound is produced by blowing air into an hollow column flutes, Reed Instr.
* There is reference in the Vedas to an instrument-the Venu
* Used as an accompaniment to chanting and recitation
* Flutes
* Single or double flutes with only one hollow tube with finger holes for controlling the pitch of the note are very common
* Long horizontal flutes with a larger diameter are used to play slow passages such as Alap of the lower registers
* Smaller and shorter flutes, sometimes held vertically, are used for Taans, the faster passages, and also for producing higher pitches of sound
* The double flutes are mostly played by musicians of the tribal and rural areas and are rarely found on the concert platform
* Reed Instruments (Shehnai, nadaswaram)
* have one or two reeds inserted in the hollow beak or tube of the instrument, these vibrate when air is blown into them
* Shehnai is a reed instrument in which there are seven holes along the tube which are used for playing the melody
* Ustad Bismillah Khan is credited for popularizing this instr.
* Avanaddha Vadya
* Sound is produced by striking the animal skin which has been stretched across an earthern or metal pot or a wooden barrel or frame
* Types of these drum family - Oordhwaka, Ankya, Alingya and the waisted or the Damaru
* Oordhwaka - drums are placed vertically before the musician and sound is produced by striking them with sticks or the fingers
* Tabla pair or chenda
* Tabla
* right side is called the Tabla and the left, the Bayan or Dagga
* Tabla has a wooden body with a covering of animal skin, this is held together with leather straps
* Between straps and wooden body, oblong wooden blocks are placed
* There is a syahi paste applied in the centre of the animal skin
* The tabla can be tuned accurately by striking the rims with a hammer
* Ankya
* Ankya drums are held horizontally before the musician and usually both sides are covered with animal hide
* Sound is produced by striking both sides with sticks or fingers
* Mridangam, Pakhawaj, Khol, etc
* Alingya
* These drums have the animal hide fixed to a wooden round frame and are embraced or held close to the body with one hand while the other hand is used for playing on the instrument
* Duff, Dufflies, etc
* Damaru (waist drum)
* It ranges from small Huddaka of Himachal Pradesh to the larger instrument known as Timila of the southern region
* Ghana Vadya
* earliest instruments invented by man are said to be the Ghana Vadya
* Once constructed, this variety of instrument do not need special tuning prior to playing
* pots and pans, jhanj, falams, etc
Theatre Forms of India:
* Traditional theatre forms of India
* Traditional theatre forms incorporate not only the common mans interests but there is also a classical element in them
* In traditional theatre forms there are special styles of dance portraying the entry on to the stage or platform, narrative and descriptive roles
* In traditional theatre forms there are certain conventions of presentations depending upon and changing according to the form and size of the stage or the platform and other available situations
* No formal setup governing entry and exit of actors
* Depending on the situation or context, the actors enter into the stage and enact their role without being formally introduced
* After a particular event or incident is over, all the artists make an exit
* Traditional theatre forms have definitely been influenced by industrial civilization, industrialization, and urbanization
* Characters keep changing their place on the stage to be more impressive and to give the situation a greater significance
* Nautanki Traditional theatre centre in Kanpur
* Different forms of Traditional Theatre
* Bidapat Naach
* emphasis is not on beauty but on acting itself and narrative and descriptive skills
* Bhand Jashn
* The art of making the entry by dancing has been perfected in this J&K theatre form
* The way each character walks and enters the platform, identifies him
* Bhand Pather
* Traditional theatre form of Kashmir; combination of dance, music & acting
* Satire, wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter
* Swang
* Mainly music based, gradually prose too
* The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa alongwith the development of character can be seen in this theatre form
* Two styles Rohtak(lang Haryanvi) and Haathras(lang Brajbhasha)
* Nautanki
* Popular traditional centre in UP in Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras
* Meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel
* Previously only men acted, but now-a-days women also started
* Raasleela
* Based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends
* Nand Das wrote the initial plays based on the life of Krishna
* Bhavai
* Traditional theatre form of Gujarat(Kutch and Kathiawar)
* Instr used in Bhavai bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera
* Rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments
* Jatra (Bengal)
* Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's influence
* Earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were added at later stage
* Maach (MP)
* Maach is used for the stage itself as also for the play
* In this theatre form songs are given prominence in between the dialogues
* Term for dialogue bol; rhyme in narration vanag; tunes of theatre rangat
* Bhaona (Assam)
* Presentation of Ankia Naat; cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can be seen
* Sutradhaar narrator of story (Begins in Sanskrit then Brajboli or Assamese)
* Tamaasha (Maharastra)
* Traditional folk evolved from Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan
* In tamaasha, female actress (Murki) is the chief exponent of dance movements
* Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid gestures make it possible to portray all the emotions through dance
* Dashavatar (Goa and Konkan regions)
* performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu
* Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood and papier mache
* Krishnattam (Kerala)
* Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive days
* The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana
* The episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna - his birth, childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good over evil
* Mudiyettu (Kerala)
* celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-December)
* performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess
* triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika
* Theyyam (Kerala)
* Gods dance; tradition of worshipping of spirits of ancestors, folk heroes, and deities of various diseases and ailments can be traced back to ancient times in South India
* Koodiayaattam (Kerala)
* The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor, Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those taking on women's roles
* The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or jesters are the protagonists
* Only Vidushak delivers the dialogues
* Yakshagana (Karnataka)
* Theatrical arts based on mythological stories
* The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati
* Therukoothu (TN)
* Means Street play; Mostly performed at the time of annual temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest
* there is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of Draupadi
* Kattiakaran, the Sutradhara of the Therukoothu performance, gives the gist of the play to the audience; Komali entertains the audience with his buffoonery
Puppet Forms of India:
* Puppet Forms
* Silappadikaaram - earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic
* Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place in traditional entertainment
* Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically handicapped students to develop their mental and physical faculties
* String Puppets
* String puppets or Marionettes - jointed limbs controlled by strings allow flexibility
* Kathputli (Rajasthan)
* accompanied by a highly dramatised version of the regional music
* Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips are some of the distinct facial features of these string puppets
* These puppets wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs
* Kundhei (Orissa)
* Orissa puppets have no legs but wear long flowing skirts
* They have more joints - more versatile, articulate and easy to manipulate
* puppeteers often hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to which strings are attached for manipulation
* Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
* They are styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana
* Gombeyatta puppet figures are highly stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees
* These puppets are manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop
* Bommalattam (TN)
* Bommalattam combine the techniques of both rod and string puppets
* They are made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring which the puppeteer wears like a crown on his head
* Bommalattam puppets are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate of all traditional Indian marionettes
* Shadow Puppets
* Shadow puppets are flat figures
* They are cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent
* They are pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it
* Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
* These puppets are mostly small in size
* he puppets however differ in size according to their social status, for instance, large size for kings and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants
* Tholu Bommalata (AP)
* puppets are large in size and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees
* Colored on both sides hence throw colored shadows on the screen
* music is dominantly influenced by the classical music of the region
* themes are drawn from Mahabharata and Ramayana and Puranas
* Ravanachhaya (Orissa)
* puppets are in one piece and have no joints
* They are not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen
* manipulation requires great dexterity, since there are no joints
* puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses
* Rod Puppets
* Putul Nautch (WB)
* Rod-puppets used to be of human size like the Bunraku puppets of Japan
* These puppets have mostly three joints (Head & hands joined to rod at neck)
* Yampuri (Bihar)
* These puppets are made of wood
* these puppets are in one piece and have no joints
* Glove Puppets
* head is made of either papier mache, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck
* the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb are the two arms of the puppet
* In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other
* Pavakoothu (Kerala)
* influence of Kathakali, the famous classical dance-drama of Kerala
* The manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of the puppet
* The musical instruments used during the performance are Chenda, Chengiloa, Ilathalam and Shankha the conch
Indian Literature:
* Ancient Indian Literature:
* Vedas Are essentially archetypal poetry of high literary value. They are mythical in nature and of symbolic language
* Yajna means worship of divine, co-ordination and giving (sacrifice)
* Division of contexts of vedas are twofold ritualistic injunction and discussions on meaning of vedic ritual and all that is related of it
* Purana (that which renews the old) illustrates and expound truth of the vedas
* No of puranas 18
* Classical Sanskrit Language
* Kavya more care on form, such as the style, figure of speech, conceits, descriptions, etc., and the story-theme is pushed to the background
* Pali Literature
* Pali is the archaic Sanskrit combination of various dialects
* Buddha gave sermons in Pali and the Tripitakas were written in Pali language
* Vinaya Pitaka monastic rules of the Order of Buddhist monks
* Sutta Pitaka collection of speeches and dialogues of Buddha
* Abhidamma Pitaka deals with ethics, psychology or theory of knowledge
* Dravidian Literature
* Indian languages speak four different speech families Austric, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and Indo-European
* Austric -
* Dravidian Literature Telugu, Tamil (oldest), Malayalam, Kannada
* Sino-Tibetan
* Indo-European
* Medieval Literature
* The powerful trend of medieval indian literature (1000 to 1800CE) is devotional (Bhakti)
* Basavanna, Allam Prabhu are bhakti poets of Kannada language
* Gyaneswar (Dhyaneswar) first and foremost bhakti poet in Marathi
* Eknath, Tukaram are other poets who cast their spell all over Maharashtra
* Kabir(Hindi), Namdev(Marathi), Guru Nanak(Punjabi) other famous poets
* Tulsidas, Surdas, Meera bhai belong to same period 15th to 16th century
* Women poets of Bhakti
* Ghosha, Lopamudra, Viswawara, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala, Romasha wrote few texts in vedas called as Brahmavadini (expounder of veda)
* Medieval Lit. by women -
* Songs of Buddhist Nuns Mutta, Ubiri, Mettika (Pali Lang)
* Alwar like Andal gave expression to their love for divine
* Lal ded (Muslim Poetess, Kashmiri) represented sant tradition of bakti
* They all wrote small lyrics or poems of devotional fervour, metaphysical depth, and with a spirit of dedication and utmost sincerity
* Other Trends
* Heroic poetry in Punjabi known as Kissa and Var
* Najabats Var Nadir Shah
* Love ballads Hir Ranjha Warris Shah (Muslim poet, Punjabi)
* Amir Khusro Sufi Poet exp. with Persian & Hindi (Hindavi) mix. poetry Urdu
* Modern Indian Literature
* Emergence of Nationalism
* Bankim Chandra chatterjee Durgesh Nandini, Anand Math
* Revivalism and reformism were natural corollaries of the newly emerging idea of nationalism
* Tagore made Federalism as important part of his concept of national ideology
* Mod Indian pluralism is multi-lingual, multi-cultural, secular, national-state conc
* Literature of Nationalism, Revivalism, Reformism
* Rangalal in Bengali, Mirza Ghalib in Urdu and Bharatendu Harishchandra in Hindi expressed themselves as the patriotic voice of that era
* MM Dutt wrote first modern epic in Indian language, and naturalized blank verse in Bengali
* First Tamil Novel(Pratap Mudaliyar Charitam Samuel Pillai), Telugu(Sri Rangaraja Charitra Krishnama Chetty), Malayalam(Indulekha Chandu menon
* Progressive Literature
* Chhayavad was challenged by a progressive school that came to be known as Pragativad (progressivism)
* Nagarjun was undisputedly the most powerful and noted Hindi poet of the progressive group
* The critical norms of progressive literature were established by the pioneer of this phase in Punjabi by Sant Singh Sekhon
* The progressive writers movement attracted the attention of eminent poets of Urdu, like Josh Malihabadi and Faiz Ahmad Faiz
* Dalit Literature
* Dalit movement was started in literature by Marathi, Gujarati and Kannada writes under the leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
* It came into the limelight because of progressive literature moving nearer to the downtrodden
* literature of militant protest against upper caste literature upholding Brahmanical values
* It challenges the tone and context of existing literary canons and decentralises the whole process of a literary movement
* It creates an alternative aesthetics and extends the linguistic and generic possibilities of literature
* The present-day crisis in India is the conflict between expediency and universality, and as a result, a large number of writers are in the process of identifying a pattern of problem-solving within the traditional system, vigorous enough to generate and sustain an indigenous process of modernization, which does not need readymade external solutions, and is in accord with indigenous needs and attitudes
* Some famous books:
* Natyashastra Bharata Muni (2nd century BC 2nd century AD)
* the date of the work is between the 2nd century B.C.E- 2nd century C.E
* Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda
* he has evolved this veda by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda
* Sangeeta Ratnakara SarangaDeva (13th century AD)
* Kamasutra Vatsayana
* Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvasiam, Abhigyana Shakuntalam Kalidasa
* Mricchakatika Sudraka
* Uttara-Ramacharitam Bhavabhuti
* Gitagovida Jayadeva
* Panchatantra Vishnu Sharma
* Hitopadesha Narayan Pandit
* Buddhacharita Aswagosha
* Gathasaptasathi Hala
* Ramcharitamanas Tulsidas
* Naurasnama Ibrahim II
* Advent of Printing Press in India William Carey at Serampore, Bengal
Indian Architecture:
* Indus Civilization
* Building activity during Indus valley Civilization
* Town planning was excellent, burnt bricks used, roads were wide and at right angles, city drains were laid out, corbelled arch and baths were constructed
* Two important remains of the oldest times are fortifications of the old Rajagriha town, in Bihar and the fortified capital of Sisupalgarh
* Lomas Rishi cave in the Barabar Hills of Bihar Ajivika sect during Asokha period
* Buddhist Architecture
* Chaitya Prayer hall; Vihara dwelling place for monks
* The Buddhist Stupa is another form of architecture, comprising a hemispherical dome, a solid structure into which one cannot enter
* The stupa is a glorified, beautified, enlarged funerary mound (once the resting place of the bones and ashes of a holy man)
* The railing and gateways at Bharhut, Sanchi and Bodh Gaya are the most famous in the north and at Amravati and Nagarjunakonda in the South
* On these surfaces are carved the favourite symbols of Buddhism, the lotus, elephant, bull, lion and horse and some of the Jataka stories of the previous births of Buddha, depicted in low relief with such exuberant details that they are considered a land-mark in the story of Indian art
* Temple Architecture
* Earliest structural temple still standing in its original condition is the one constructed at Aihole in Karnataka
* little structure built of huge almost boulder-like blocks of stones
* temple consists of a simple square cell (garbhagriha) or sanctum sanctorum, in front of which there is a covered verandah, a portico, which consists of four heavy pillars supporting a stone roof
* The entire structure is heavy, bulky and clumsy
* this was constructed near about 300 to 350 A.D
* The Ladkhan temple of Aihole belongs to about 5th century A.D
* Here the architect has tried to give attention to the circumambulation path which is enclosed by means of a wall allowing devotees to have pradakshana
* The Durga temple at Aihole is an apsidal temple of about 550 A.D. in which the architect has made immense improvements upon his previous attempts
* To make this construction doubly strong, he hit upon the 'idea of making brackets, an essential element in Hindu and Buddhist architecture in India and used much earlier in China; a slanting piece of stone emerging as it were from the pillars or posts, reaching out like an arm to hold the lintel or beam steadily
* This kind of construction is known by the architectural term, trabeate, as distinct from accurate which was later made use of by the Muslims
* Rock cut temples are found at Mahabalipuram known as Ratha (or Chariots)
* Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a famed University town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars
* Nalanda was an important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also yielded seals and sealings of great historical significance
* Vimana The temple tower over the main shrine in Orissa is one of the most glorious inventions of architecture in India and is functionally a much finer conception than the south Indian Gopuram
* chhatra or the crown on top of the spire or tower
* The round stone at the pinnacle of the horizontal slabs is amlaka
* The early Indian temple was provided with a flat roof and there was a problem of letting out accumulated rain water
* In the Aihole temples of Ladkhan and Durga, the roof slabs have been given a slant and these slabs of large stones which were used in the early Orissan temples
* Sun temple at Konark which was constructed by the eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha Varman (1250)
* vast & wonderful struct, magnificently conceived as a gigantic chariot
* Dravidian style of temple architecture
* from the 8th century to about the 13-14 century A.D
* Natamandaps dance halls
* Bhogamandapas hall of offerings
* Brihadesvara temple which was erected about 1000 A.D. is a contemporary of the Rajarani temple of Bhubaneswar
* structure is adorned with beautiful sculpture and paintings
* Dedicated to Shiva - consists of the sanctum sanctorum
* Kailasa temple at Ellora is in a class by itself because it is a rock-cut temple complex, which in many respects resembles the various rathas at Mahabalipuram
* constructed during the reign of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna
* gopuram, is the tower, an oblong quadrangle, sometimes a square, with a passage through the centre and is situated on the entrance gateway unlike in the north
* Khajuraho, twenty five miles North of Panna and twenty seven miles of Chhatarpur in Madhya Pradesh is an important place because of the exquisite temples built there by the Chandellas
* They are cruciform in plan with the long axis from East to West
* these temples have a soft texture and a most pleasing colour
* he temples at Khajuraho have a circumambulatory passage also
* Panchayatana - a temple that has a central shrine surrounded by four other shrines
* Chaunsat Yogini Temple the only temple made entirely of granite and dedicated to sixty four yoginis
* The Style/Shapes of temple architectures in India are
* Nagara - The tower/shikhar is beehive/curvilinear shaped
* Earliest Nagara temples are in Karnataka
* Galaganath at Pattadakal
* Dravida - The tower/shikhar consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions
* Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior
* Vesara Once common in Karnataka, which is a combination of two styles
* Classic Hindu temples of India and Southeast Asia, such as Angkor Wat, Brihadisvara, Khajuraho, Mukteshvara, and Prambanan
* Indo-Islamic Architecture:
* The most important factors common to both forms of architecture, especially in respect of mosques and temples, were that to both styles, ornamental decoration was very vital and that the open court in many cases was surrounded by colonnades
* The prayer chamber of the mosque was spacious, whereas the shrine of the temple was comparatively small
* Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque - Qutub-ud-din Aibak
* Qutub Minar of Mehrauli started by Qutubuddin 1199 & compl by Iltumish
* Alai Darwaja Allauddin Khilji
* Din-i-illahi New eclectic religion created by Akbar
* Agra Fort Akbar (1565-74)
* Panch mahal (fatehpur sikri, Agra) trabeate structure Akbar
* Foundation of Shahzanabad Shahjahan
* Red Fort irregular octagon 1639-48 Shahjahan
* Hawa Mahal Jaipur, Rajasthan Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh
Indian Sculpture
* Indus Civilization
* urban culture is the bust portrait of a bearded nobleman or high priest, from Mohenjodaro, weaving a shawl with trefoil pattern
* It bears a close resemblance to a similar figure discovered in the Sumerian sites of Ur and Susa
* The figure of a male dancer belonging to the same period and discovered at Harappa almost 5000 years ago
* The bronze dancing girl of the same period discovered at Mohenjodaro is perhaps the greatest surviving achievement of the metal work of the Harappan age
* The art is of bronze casting in the cire perdue or lost-wax process
* The terracotta figure representing a bull is a forceful representation, eloquently proclaiming the special study of the anatomy of the animal by the modeller who fashioned the figure
* The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right and there is a cord around the neck
* Large number of seals made of steatite, terracotta and copper are found in excavations
* Seal of Pashupati - a seated figure of a Yogi, probably Shiva Pashupati, surrounded by four animals - a rhino, a buffalo, an elephant and a tiger
* Buddhist Sculpture
* Ashokas work Lion-capital at Sarnath
* It represents four roaring lions back to back facing the four cardinal directions
* The round abacus is decorated with four dharmachakras or wheels of law, alternating with an elephant, a bull, a horse and a lion, all carved with masterly skill
* The abacus is supported by a bell-shaped base consisting of a lotus with dharmachakra
* Buddha is never represented in human form in Buddhist art before the Christian era, as his spirituality was considered too abstract for the purpose
* The adherents of the Buddhist faith followed the Hinayana path as a means of attaining salvation
* Buddha's presence in early Indian art is, therefore, suggested by symbols like the Bodhi tree under which he attained enlightenment, the wheel of law, his foot prints, the royal umbrella, the stupa and an empty throne, etc
* Sanchi stupa - It is a solid structural dome raised on a terrace and surmounted by a railed pavilion from which rises the shaft of the crowning umbrella
* The stupa was originally a mud funerary mound enshrining in its core the sacred relics of the Buddha or his disciples, such as hair, bits of bones, etc
* The present stupa at Sanchi was originally constructed during Ashoka's reign but was considerably enlarged and the circum- ambulatory enclosure as well as the outer enclosures was added in the 1st century B.C
* relief medallion from Amravati belonging to the second century A.D. is a masterly representation of a scene showing the subjugation or taming of Nalagiri, a mad elephant let loose on the Buddha in the streets of Rajagriha by his wicked cousin, Devadatta
* After alexander invasion (326BC), a distinct style of sculpture Greco-Roman, Buddhist or Gandhara art emerged
* It was a product of the combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements
* Buddha who was hitherto designated only by a symbol, was conceived in human form
* The Gandhara image might seem to resemble Apollo in some extraneous forms and does look characteristically Greco-Roman in drapery
* Buddha is one who has attained the enlightenment of supreme knowledge, while the Bodhisattava is still a candidate for it
* Gupta Sculpture
* Red sandstone image of the Buddha from Mathura
* remarkable example of Gupta workmanship datable to the 5th century A.D
* Right hand in Abhayamudra(assuring protection) & left holding the hem of garment
* The image of the standing Buddha is an excellent example of Gupta art in its maturity from Sarnath
* Dharmachakrapravartana Mudra The gesture of preaching
* A magnificient repr. Of Vishnu belongs by Guptas like
* The typical gown vanamala
* the charming string of pearls twirled round the neck, the long and elegant yagnopavita
* Medieval Sculpture
* The Pallava style concerns itself with a tall and slender physiognomical form. The thin and elongated limbs emphasise the tallness of the figure
* The female figures are much lighter in appearance, with their slender waists, narrow chests and shoulders, smaller breasts, sparse ornaments and garments and generally submissive attitude
* The figure sculpture of the Pallavas is natural in pose and modeling
* The front of the torso is almost flat, and the ornamentations simple in high relief
* Later Pallava sculpture shows greater details of workmanship, lighter anatomy and more developed artistic finishing
* Pala Style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery and conventional decoration
* Their sculptures from Bihar are somewhat thick set and heavier in their general proportions of limbs than those from Bengal
* The Pala rulers had intimate relations with Java which are evident in Hindu-Javanese sculpture, and painting of Nepal, Kashmir, Burma and Thailand
* Traditions of the marble sculpture of Gujarat in Western India are seen in the profusion of intricately carved sculptures which decorate the Jain temples at Mount Abu, Girnar and Palitana
* Hoysala art
* The temples they built at Halebid and Belur look like lace work in stone
* The decoration is elaborate, the emphasis being more on ornamentation than movement or the grace of the human body
* Hoysala sculptures are somewhat squat and short, highly embellished, or almost over-loaded with ornamentation, but yet are pleasing to behold
* Modern Indian Sculpture
* the story of contemporary Indian sculpture is the story of a transition from academism to well-defined non-objectivism
* Contemporary Indian sculpture has not shown either the speed or variety of painting
* Nandalal Bose, Kshitindranath Majumdar are renowned pupils of Abanindranath Tagore
* Nandalal - n the painting of a woman in the act of doing 'Pranam' one sees both simplicity and directness of his pictorialism as also the significant impact on his work of the vitality of folk art
* Kshitindranath - known for his soft palette and the grace and lyrical quality of his drawing. He is almost unique in this respect
* Jamini Roy His images and ideas as in this painting of 'Pujarinis' are direct, singularly stylised, and conceived in emphatic flat spaces and strong lines
* K Sreenivasulu - greatly moved by folk art and rural life like Jamini Roy
* He drew much inspiration from the art heritage of South India, particularly from the mural tradition of Tanjavur and Lepakshi
* DP Roy Chowdhury renowned sculptor work Triumph of Labour
Paintings of India:
* Wall Paintings
* Primitive records of painting in India was dated to Neolithic man where records of wild animals, war processions and hunting scenes were picturesque
* Early mural paintings may be assumed to be the prototypes of the carved and painted picture galleries of the subsequent periods of the Buddhist art, such as in the painted cave temples of Ajanta situated in Maharashtra State near Aurangabad
* paintings of Ajanta, Bagh and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and the Deccan at its best
* Paintings of Sittannavasal connected with Jain themes and symbology
* Ellora
* composition of the paintings at Ellora is measured out in rectangular panels with thick borders
* The classical tradition of modelling of the mass and rounded soft outline as well as the illusion of the coming forward from the depth is not altogether ignored
* Sharp twist of the head, painted angular bents of the arms, the concave curve of the close limbs, the sharp projected nose and the long drawn open eyes characteristic feature
* Paintings at Lepakshi, Hindupur - paintings are pressed within broad friezes and illustrate Saivaite and secular themes
* Technique
* In Rajarajeshwara temple at Tanjore painting is done in a true fresco method over the surface of the rock
* Most of the colours were locally available
* Brushes were made up from the hair of animals, such as goat, camel, mongoose, etc
* The ground was coated with an exceedingly thin layer of lime plaster over which paintings were drawn in water colours
* In true fresco method the paintings are done when the surface wall is still wet so that the pigments go deep inside the wall surface
* Tempora or Fresco-secco method
* It is a method of painting on the lime plastered surface which has been allowed to dry first and then drenched with fresh lime water
* On surface thus obtained artist proceeds to sketch out his composition
* Miniature Paintings
* It has the flavor of Persian but has the inborn charm of Indian tradition
* The practice of signing pictures was started in miniature paintings from this period
* Pala Paintings
* Pala painting is characterised by sinuous line and subdued tones of colour
* Naturalistic style resembles contemporary bronze and stone sculpture reflects the feeling of classical art of Ajanta
* Western Indian Schools (15th century)
* motivating force for the artistic activity in Western India was Jainism
* The illustrations on these manuscripts are in a style of vigorous distortion
* This is an art of primitive vitality vigorous line and forceful colours
* Kulhadar Group
* This group includes illustrations of the 'Chaurapanchasika, Gita Govinda, the Bhagavata Purana and Ragamala
* style of these miniatures is marked by the use of brilliant contrasting colours, vigorous and angular drawing, transparent drapery
* conical caps 'Kulha' on which turbans are worn by the male figures
* Mughal paintings
* Babur-Nama, Akbar-Nama, Hamza-Nama, Razm-Nama are beautifully illustrated manuscripts of this period
* Mughal paintings are aristocratic, individualistic, strong in their character of portraiture, being forstered by and for nobility
* Mughal art peeped into the inner revelry of harem, court, wild bouts, depiction of elephant and camel fights appealed to emperor, scenes of hunting etc
* Modern Indian Paintings
* There was only some minor artistic expression in the intervening period by way of the 'Bazar' and 'Company' styles of painting
* apart from the more substantial folk forms which were alive in many parts of the country
* Raja Ravi Varma
* most remembered for his paintings of sari-clad women portrayed as shapely and graceful
* Renaissance or Revivalist school Bengal school by Abanindranath tagore
Old NCERT:
* Ancient India Literature
* Vedanga
* Siksha(phonetics), Kalpa(rituals), Vyakarna(grammar), Nirukta(etymology), Chhanda(metrics), Jyotisha(astronomy)
* Sutra
* precise and exact form of exp in prose which was dev by ancient Indians
* Ex Paninis Ashtadhyayi
* Later vedic literature
* Brahmanas elaborate on vedic rituals
* Aranyakas, Upanishads give discourse on diff spiritual & philo probs
* Sulvasutra presc measurements for sacrificial altars geometry, maths
* Srautasutra account of royal coronation ceremonies
* Grihyasutra domestic rituals with birth, naming, marriage, funeral etc
* Jain and Buddhist Lit
* Jain Prakrit (form of Sanskrit language)
* Buddhism Pali (Provides det of Contemporary Magadha kings, Ashokan edicts)
* Jataka stories Buddhist books 550 stories throws light on socio-economic conditions b/w 5BC 2BC
* Limitations of literary sources
* Printing was not known everything written on bark, palm leaf, paper etc
* Old manus fragile new copies manually copied errors, additions, mistakes
* Sangam Literature
* Tamil text kings and chiefs patronized poets
* These poets assemble in collages & compiled poems over 3-4 cent Sanga lit.
* Describe many kings and dynasties of South India
* Generally describes events upto 4th Century AD
* Poems written in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. They represent a heroic age of warriors and battles
* Songs are not primitive, show high quality of grammar
* It talked about how Yavans came in their own vessels, purchased pepper with gold, supplied wine and women to Indian rulers.
* Greek writers
* Megasthenese
* Greek ambassador (in CG Maurya court) Indika
* Indika provide valuable inf on Maurya Admin, social classes & eco activities
* Limitations of Indika
* Indika is not free from credulity and exaggerations
* Megasthenese had little understanding of Indian society and social sys
* Discrepancies because he didnt know any Ind lang, not part of society
* Herodotus - in his Histories gives us much information about Indo-Persian relations
* Arrian - det acc of inv of Ind by Alexander on basis of inf frm those who accompd camp
* Anonymous Periplus of Erythrean Sea gave valuable inf about Indian coasts
* Ptolemy wrote geographical treatise on India in 2nd Cent AD
* Limitations
* Most of Greek writings based on secondary sources resulted in no of errors
* Except for Megasthe all others touched Ind hist in true sense very marginally
* They were ignorant of lang & customs of country & inf is full of unbelive facts
* Works of Mega & others are lost and available only in fragments
* Chinese travelers
* Fa-hien 5th Cent AD desc soc-religious & eco cond of India in time of Guptas
* Hiuen-Tsang 7th Cent Age of Harshavardhana & some other contemp kings of N India
* I-tsing 7th Cent
* Limitations
* Hiuen-Tsang depicts Harsha as a follower of Buddhism but in his epigraphic records Harsha mentions himself as a devotee of Siva.
* Counter - Indian rulers always have, like their subjects, been multi-religious people, it is not difficult for a foreigner to be confused
* Arab Historian (Al-Beruni)
* Abu-Rihan Central Asia 973AD Contemporary of Mohd. Ghazni
* Al-Beruni studied Sanskrit lang & tried to gain a precise knowledge of Indian sources
* His observations range from philo, rel, cult, society to science, lit, art and medicine
* does not give any political information of his times
* comparatively free from religious or racial biases
* Archaeological Sources
* Mound elevated portion of land, covering remains of old habitations
* Vertical excavation helps uncover periodwise uncover of culture
* Horizontal Digging mound as a whole getting complete data of a site
* Very expensive, done at only few places
* Impact of climate on Mounds
* Dry Arid climate(Raj, West UP) better preserved
* Humid-Moist climate(Gangetic, Deltas) Iron tools suffer corrosion
* Only burnt brick structures can be detected
* Megaliths South Ind people buried their dead with tools, weapons, potteries etc. Such graves were encircled by a big piece of stone, called Megaliths.
* Carbon dating measure of decaying of C14 to C12 and identify no of years elapsed
* Inscriptions
* Ashokan inscriptions (in Brahmi script) are considered to be the earliest (3rd AD)
* Four scripts used in edicts Aramic, Greek (Afghan), Kharosthi(Pak), Brahmi(India)
* James Prinsep Made a complete chart of Ashokan Alphabets in 1837
* Sanskrit
* Most of the Gupta epigraphs give genealogy
* They took the opp to give an acc of their conquests and achievements of their predecessor including mythology of their origins
* Sanskrit came to occupy a prune place since the Gupta period
* Imp Inscriptions
* Junagarh Rock Rudradaman considered early ex of chaste Sanskrit, 2nd Cen AD
* Allahabad Pillar enumerates achievements of Samudragupta
* Aihole inscription Chalukya king Pulkeshin II gives a dynastic genealogy
* Gwalior inscr (Bhoja) gives full account of his predecessors & his achievements
* Acc to it Learned Brahmins are granted with land free of tax(Agraharas)
* Numismatics
* Punch marked
* Earliest coins, bear only symbols, dont bear inscription
* Found throughout the country from Taxila to Magadha to Mysore
* Made from silver and copper, some with gold(rare, authenticity doubtful)
* Indo-Greek
* Silver & copper, show beautiful artistic features, portrait of king appears real
* On the reverse side some deity is depicted
* From these coins we know that 40 Indo-Greek rulers ruled in NW region of India
* Kushanas
* Mostly gold and numerous copper,
* coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure of Siva standing beside a bull
* Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have this depiction on their coins
* Guptas
* Gold, indianised their coinage
* Kings depicted activities like hunting a lion or rhinoceros, holding bow or battle-axes, playing musical instr. Or performing ashwamedh yajna
by Gali Vinod Simha
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