Shale Gas

Shale Gas in the Sci-Tech section, yet at the risk of sounding ungrateful, I realised it lacked on certain fronts; specially the technological aspects and analysis with respect to the Indian scenario. Here is my 2 cents to it. (I have taken certain parts from mrunal sirs article because there was no substitute and they were simply awesome).
Shale Gas : The Sanjeevani for Indian fuel pangs?
What is Shale Gas?
Natural gas (mainly methane) is generally classified under two heads:

* Conventional gas, and (b) Unconventional gas.
Most of the natural gas that is produced globally comes under the category of conventional gas where, after drilling in a sedimentary basin that is rich in gas, the gas migrates through porous rocks into reservoirs and flows freely to the surface where it is collected, treated, and then piped to various users. Shale gas is an unconventional source of methane, like coal-bed gas (in coal seams), tight gas (trapped in rock formations) and gas hydrates(off shore frozen methane).

The Technology
Shale gas is located in rocks of very low permeability and does not easily flow. Therefore, the technique for recovery of shale gas is quite different from that of conventional gas. The technology implied is a complex one and is just out of development phase. The main steps involved are:

* Shale rock is sometimes found 3,000 meters below the surface. Therefore, after deep vertical drilling, there are techniques to drill horizontally for considerable distances in various directions to extract the gas-rich shale.

* A mixture of water, chemicals, and sand is then injected into the well at very high pressures (8,000 psi) to create a number of fissures in the rock to release the gas. The process of using water for breaking up the rock is known as hydro-fracturing or fracking.

* The chemicals help in water and gas flow and tiny particles of sand enter the fissures to keep them open and allow the gas to flow to the surface. This injection has to be done several times over the life of the well.
Advantages of the shale gas technology

* Using gas as a fuel in itself is a big advantage because it is cheaper to generate electricity from gas, and the process releases up to 50% less carbon dioxide than does coal.

* Shale gas can serve as a useful substituent for the fast depleting natural gas reserves.

* With the advances in exploration technology, large reserves have been discovered in USA, Europe and India till date. This paves way for the disconcentration of energy resources from the middle-east and the resulting political turmoil that engulfs the region.

* It shows promising potential for substituting future fuelling needs, especially for industries dependent on gas like power petrochemicals and fertilizers.
Disadvantages of the shale gas technology

* Gas in itself poses certain problems as a fuel including high cost of transportation and storage, liquefaction etc. Also gas prices vary around the globe regionally and it has no global price. (On a separate note, India and Japan, the two leading importers of LNG in Asia are working together to formulate a Uniform Gas pricing policy)

* Shale gas, in particular, involves more complex extraction technology for optimal exploitation of shale gas/oil which requires horizontal and multilateral wells and multistage hydraulic fracturing treatments and still awaits certain environmental clearances.

* High risk of investment as the technology is still infant and yet to show any significant returns.

* It poses threat to underground water resources and aquifiers from hydro-fracturing and fracturing fluid disposal.

* The water after hydraulic fracturing is flowed back to the surface and may have high content of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and other contaminants
What the world is doing?
The US is the technology leader in the exploration and extraction of shale gas. There are 34 states in the US, which have vast deposits of rocks rich in shale gas. Production of the gas has added about 20 per cent to domestic gas availability and over 20,000 wells have been drilled. From being an importer of LNG, the country is now self-sufficient and there are plans to export gas from the very terminals that were built for imports. It is being called The North American shale gas revolution,
Europe has not had the same success in exploiting shale gas as the US for several reasons. In the US, resources under the land belong to the land owner who is happy to allow drilling and get paid by the gas companies, whereas in Europeas also in India these resources belong to the government. Also, important tax benefits are given to companies in the US to drill and produce shale gas. In Europe, the geology of shale rock is different from that of the US and it is more likely to be found in places that are more densely populated. The NIMBY effect (Not in My Back Yard) is much more prevalent in Europe than in the US. France, Bulgaria, Luxembourg, the Czech Republic, and the Netherlands have either banned or put a moratorium on shale gas exploration.
What India is doing?
The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG) has identified six basins as potentially shale gas bearing. These are Cambay, Assam-Arakan, Gondwana, Krishna-Godavari, Kaveri, and the Indo-Gangetic plain. In a study conducted by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), recoverable resources of 6.1 tcf(trillion cubic feet) have been estimated in 3 out of 26 sedimentary basins. According to the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), there are about 34 tcf of shale gas in the Damodar basin alone (compared to Indias total conventional gas reserves of 47 tcf) of which 8 tcf are recoverable.

The Government of India had also put out in 2012, a draft policy for the exploration and exploitation of shale gas, inviting suggestions from the general public, stakeholders, environmentalists, etc.
Indian Scenario: Roadblocks and how to move forward
As has been already mentioned above, India has a significant amount of recoverable and prospective estimates of shale gas reserves which overshadow the conventional gas reserves. These could totally change the game in the energy deficit crisis that India is facing today. Yet, we have a long way to go in identifying shale gas rich basins and acquiring the necessary technology and experience to extract shale gas.
Let us have an objective look at the major concerns which need to be addressed before banking upon such an alluring prospect:

* The number of wells to be drilled for shale gas far exceeds the number of wells required in the case of conventional gas and the land area required is a minimum of 80 to 160 acres. India has already been facing several cases regarding various projects running down because of inadequate land acquisition policies.

* The most egregious is the issue of water requirements. Shale gas procurement may require large volume of water 3-4 million gallons per well depending upon the well type and shale characteristics. These concerns need a second look in a country such as ours which is already a water-stressed country and is fast approaching the scarcity benchmark of 1,000 m3 per capita. In the next 12-15 years, the consumption of water will increase by 50% while the supply will increase by only 5 to 10%.

* The water after hydraulic fracturing is flowed back to the surface and may have high content of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and other contaminants. The possibility of contamination of aquifier (both surface and subsurface) from hydro-fracturing and fracturing fluid disposal is also persistent.
These are some of the concerns which have been raised since the prospect of shale gas as a potential fuel dawned upon India. But any new technology comes with a baggage of criticisms which are necessary in their own sense. However, it is evident that India needs to tap this energy source since its natural gas market continues to see a deficit. In 2012-13 natural gas consumption in India is expected to stand at 104.4 bcm against its production of 40.7 bcm.

* India needs to build strong service and infrastructure capabilities, along with a favourable regulatory regime.

* A framework policy which while addressing environmental and social concerns, can also promote exploration and production activities.

* A mandatory rain-water harvesting provision in the exploration area which trivializes the extent to which the water which will be utilized in extraction.

* As far as possible, river, rain or non-potable water should be used for fracking and appropriate investment should be made in technologies minimizing the water use and reuse and recycle of water.

* Adequate land acquisition policies and proper implementation of LARR Bill, 2013

Some Interesting Facts :
Interestingly, Reliance Industries Ltd (RIL) has made big investments (US$ 3.5 billion) in the largest unconventional gas field in the US which is one of the largest worldwide, with estimated net recoverable resources of 318 trillion cubic feet (tcf) (In comparison, the resources in RILs own D6 fields in the KG Basin were estimated to hold around 3.4 tcf in November 2012, dropping from 10.3 tcf in December 2006.(you know why!!)). Oil India Limited (OIL), Indian Oil Corporation (IOC), and GAIL India Limited have also made investments in shale gas production in the US.
The other interesting contribution to shale gas development in the US is the export of guar gum from India, which helps in improving the viscosity and flow of water in the fracking process. The gum is extracted from guar ki phalli, grown mainly by farmers in arid lands in Rajasthan and Haryana. Earlier, guar gum was used mainly as an additive in ice creams and sauces, but with the serendipitous discovery of its use in shale gas extraction, its production has risen enormously, earning almost US$ 5 billion during the period from April 2012 to January 2013.
Also, Nicaragua has expressed interest to invite propositions from Indian firms for a $40 billion project to connect the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean by a mammoth canal. Its primary objective is to facilitate the passage of ultra large tankers carrying shale gas from US into the Asian and African markets which cannot be accommodated through the Panama Canal.
----------------------X---------------------------------X-------------------------------------X---------------
Pradyumn Gaurav
Sources :
The Energy Resource Institute(TERI) Policy Brief : Shale Gas in India: Look Before You Leap
The Hindu : Game changer or Spoiler?
The Hindu : India needs strong infrastructure to boost shale gas industry
http://suvratk.blogspot.in/2011/05/india-basin-wise-shale-gas-estimates.html (Mr suvrat Kher, sedimentary Geologist)

French revolution:

French revolution:
1. Introduction:
Different from American Revolution in the following ways:

* First social revolution; peoples revolt against their own government

* About restructuring society & principle of governance vis a- vis American revolution which was just for a change in government

* Highly revered revolution; change in the structure of Europe
Before discussing the causes of the French revolution, it is important to understand the social structure of France.

Figure 1 social structure of France
2. Causes of French revolution:
A. Social cause:

* All the resources(land and other property) belonged to the 1st and 2nd estate while 80% population: 3rd estate

* Only 3rd estate taxed

* Peasants have to serve the 1st and the 2nd estate; no obligation of the 1st and 2nd estate on the peasants

* Detiorating economic condition of the peasant class and growing amount of taxes
B .Financial cause:
Factors leading to the drain of wealth causing financial burden:

* 7 year war with Britain: 1756-1763

* French help in America revolution

* Life style of king and queen at that time
C. Inspiration from American Revolution
D. Social thinkers and philosophers like Rousseau, Voltaire, John locke criticizing the dominance of church and the absolute rights of the first estate
E. Arbitrary rule and the absolutism of the French king

3. Middle class:

* Emergence of the middle class including merchants,lawyers,artists etc as a product of industrial revolution

* Middle class led the French revolution also called as bourgeoisie revolution

* Middle class emerged from the 3rd estate

4. Course of the revolution:
i. Estates-general: Louis XVI convened the estates general, meeting of 3 estates upon the advice of swiss banker Jacques necker and the transition to constitutional monarchy from absolute monarchy was put up. Though the third estate was vastly larger than the clergy and the nobility, each estate had the same representation-one vote. Inevitably the third estate vote on this transition proposal was overridden by the first and the second estate.

ii. Tennis court oath: Third estate which was now the national assembly split from the other estates and convened on a near-by tennis court instead. Took an oath famously called the tennis court oath stating that they would remain indissoluble until they succeed in creating a new national constitution.

iii. The Bastille: Upon the dismissal of necker (being popular with the people) because of his inability to successfully convene the estate general, the hostility spiked yet again. July,1789 revolutionaries raided the Paris town hall in pursuit of arms. Later stormed the Bastille, a medieval fortress realizing that it contained large armory. This was a symbolic victory over the old regime.

iv. Lafayette and the National Guard: National assembly secured the control over the capital. Previous government council was exiled. Assembly members occupied top government positions in Paris. Marquis de Lafayette, a noble, assembled a collection of citizens into the French National Guard. Assembly issued an august decree nullifying many of the feudal obligations that the peasants had to their landlords in order to anoint the raging rural peasants.

v. Declaration of the rights of the man and the citizen: On august 1789 assembly issued the declaration of the rights of the men and the citizen; document guaranteeing the due in process in judicial matters and established sovereignty among the French people. Every person was a French man and equal. French people embraced it. Not acceptable to king and nobles.

vi. Food crisis and assemblys tenuous control: Despite the assemblys gains, the France experienced the looming and growing food crisis. French women took up arms in Oct, 1789 and marched to Versailles. The weakness of the assembly being exposed within the France and the great fear and the womens march demonstrated perhaps that the assembly did not have as much control as it liked to think.

vii. Louis XVI Flight: In 1791 Louis XVI and his family attempted to escape to the Austrian border where they were to meet an Austrian army and arrange an attack on the revolutionaries. Caught before reaching the border and brought back to Tueleries in Paris.

viii. Declaration of pillnitz: In response to Louis VXIs capture and forced return to Paris, Prussia and Austria issued the declaration of pillnitz on Aug, 1791 warning the French against harming the king and demanding the monarchy be restored.

ix. Constitution of 1791: The national assembly released much anticipated constitution of 1791 which created constitutional monarchy for France. King Louis XVI and his ministers had to answer to the new legislature though they could maintain control.





x. Jacobins and girondins:



xi. War against Prussia and Austria and Execution of Louis XVI: After the initial defeats at the hands of Austria and Prussia, the revolutionarie(Jacobins) could finally get the better off them. They also proclaimed the abolition of monarchy and the establishment of the republic. Louis XVI condemned to death for treason and executed on January 21, 1793.

xii. Robespierre and the reign of terror: Robespierre and the Jacobins focused on addressing economic and political threats within France. They instituted its infamous campaign against internal opposition known as the reign of terror. Anywhere between 15000-50000 French citizens were guillotined. Finally Robespierre convicted by court in July 1794, arrested and sent to guillotine.
xiii. Constitution of 1795: The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power. On august 22, 1795 they ratified the new constitution ushering the period of governmental restructuring. The new legislature consisted of 2 houses: upper house called the council of ancients (250 members) and the lower house called the council of five hundred (500 members).Also had the executive body called the directory of the group of 5 officers. Napoleon lead a coup against the directory in 1799 eventually stepping up and naming himself the first council- effectively the leader of the France. With the napoleon at the helm, France entered the 15 year period of military rule

xiv. Era of napoleon: As first consul, began to consolidate his power. Introduced Napoleonic code doing away with all the privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property. At 1804, he did away with the consulate and crowned himself emperor in an extravagant coronation ceremony. With the series of further invasions and expansions he could establish many treaties like that of treaty of tilsit etc. He was defeated in the battle of waterloo in June 1815, exiled and died in 1821.

xv. Constitutional monarchy restored by restoring Louis XVIII to the throne.

5. In a nutshell:

Figure 2 Course of governance in France



6. Contribution of the French revolution:

* Popularized peoples rule/concept of popular sovereignty

* Inspired constitutional monarchy movement in Europe leading towards formation of modern Europe. For ex: unification of Italy, Germany etc

* Popularized the spirit of liberty, equality and democracy. In terms of equality promoted socio-economic equality. Special privileges of first and second state taken away. 3rd estate gained equal rights.

* Popularized the idea of republic clubbing it with the spirit of nationalism

* Concept of secularism popularized by French revolution.

7. References:

* The French revolution by Georges Lefebvre

* The French revolution: A history by Thomas Carlyle

* NCERT

* http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/1848/section2.rhtml

* Structure and flow taken from Chronicle study material
Name: K.R.Chandra mouli