FOOD SECURITY in india:

FOOD SECURITY in india:
The issue of food security encompasses the twin aspects:

* Adequate availability of food grains .

* Its effective distribution to ensure its access to all.
If the purchasing power of the poor is not adequate enough to buy the food, they should be enabled to either buy them at a subsidised price or their purchasing power should be suitably enhanced. While the former is achieved by a distributional policy, the latter is achieved by the implementationof specific programmes.
The task of distribution (i.e. taking the food to the door step of every household, particularly the household living below the poverty line i.e. BPL families) is a gigantic task which is carried out in India by the public distribution system (PDS).
The PDS is implemented through the operation of fair price shops (FPS) established all over the country. The task of such a mammoth distribution is preceded by theprocurement of foodgrains from the farmers under a policy of price support called theminimum support price (MSP). By implementing such policies (i.e. procuring and distributing foodgrains through FPS, running food-for-work programmes, etc.) over the last six decades, the government has succeeded in according a measure of food security to millions of poor people. The impact of this is seen in the declining poverty ratios over time. The accuracy of estimates of people living below the poverty line inIndia, estimated by different methodological frameworks, is subject to debate. However,as per a UN report, in the post-reform years of 1990s alone, the proportion of poor below the poverty line has declined from 51.3 percent in 1990 to around 26 percent in 2010. Notwithstanding this degree of success,
There are three serious issues which case a deep shadow on the efficiency of our food security policy. These are:

* The buffer stock is getting affected due to inadequate storage space,

* The targeting error in the PDS system has excluded many real poor from the PDS benefit (and many non-poor included),

* The surplus subsidised foodgrains are exported to other countries with a huge further burden on the exchequer as subsidies.

* The buffer stock of foodgrains is exported where they are used by animal feed manufacturers in countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, Oman, Iraq,Philippines, etc. It is in the face of this tragic truth that the term food in security is used to describe a condition in which severe malnutrition persists among children in a population where there is no scarcity of food supply.
Two major issues of concern to agricultural development:
(i) The policies adopted by the government to achieve a higher rate of food security
(ii) The future strategy that needs to be adopted to make the policies of food security more efficient.
Food Self Sufficiency:
A country is said to have achieved self sufficiency in food production when its food production at the aggregate level matches with the food requirement of all its people.
In other words, it refers to a state in which a country is in a position to feed its people from its own domestic production without having to depend on import of foodgrains from other countries. On the other hand, an economy, is said to be deficient in food production when its domestic production falls short of its requirement.
If the deficiency is large, inthe absence of help from other countries, the economy could witness starvation. It is important to note, however, that for a country to be food secured, it is not necessary to develop its own agricultural production .
Net Production:
The entire foodgrains produced in a country is not available for human consumption.

* A part of it would be used as seeds for its subsequent ploughing

* while another part of it may be lost due to improper storage.

* A part of food grains output is also used as animal feed.

* The remaining portion, which is available for human consumption, is termed asnet production.
The proportion of net production in total production depends upon various factors:

* Method of cultivation,

* Storage and

* Marketing of foodgrains.
This proportion is likely to vary from one country to another. In India, 87.5 percent of total food grains production is taken as net production.
Food Security Versus Food Insecurity:
At a national level, food security is defined as availability of food in the required quantity and quality to all individuals. The availability should be in a manner which isadequate to lead healthy and active life.A further condition of food security also requires that the availability should continue on a lasting or sustained basis.
The four elements of food viz.
They are equally important to ensure food security

* availability,

* access,

* utilization and

* stabilityof access,
Further,the condition of utilisation of food to lead a healthy and active life brings-in the significance of non-food items (like adequate diet, clean water, sanitation and health care) to food security. Thus, if a person is unable to make use of the food because he/she is sick, with no resource bein available as help, then the food utilisation condition remains unsatisfied.
Likewise, the stability of access underscores the possibility of vulnerability of poor who might find themselves without food on any day that they fail to find employment. It is in this sense, that th element of food entitlement (i.e. resources by which one can claim food as entitlement) becomes important.
Public Distribution System (PDS)
In a free-market economy characterised by inequalities in income among households,there are many poor households who are not in a position to buy adequate food at the prevailing market price. Such households are, therefore, food insecure. A mechanism by which food at a cheaper rate is made available to such poor households is thepublic distribution system (PDS).
PDS are of two types viz.
1) Universal-PDS (UPDS)
2)Targeted-PDS (TPDS).
Universal PDS:
A public distribution system in which all the household are provided a uniform scale of foodgrains is known as the UPDS.
Targeted PDS:
A public distribution system in which households are classified into two categories viz. poor and non-poor, with the objective of providing the poor households a higher scale of ration than the non-poor households, is known as the TPDS. The TPDS is, therefore,basically meant to provide better food security to the poor.
Targeting Errors: Type-E and Type-F Errors:
The food insecure households are provided a ration card which will enable them to purchase food from the fair price shops (FPS) at a subsidised rate (i.e. a rate which is lower than the market price).
In the process of distribution of ration cards two types of errors can creep-in.

* A deserving household (i.e. poor) may be excluded from the benefit of a ration card thereby denying him the benefit of the PDS. Such an error is called Type-E error.

* On the other hand, a non-poor household may get included for the benefit of subsidised foodgrains from the PDS. Such an error is called Type F error.
The efficiency of PDS depends on the capacity of the government to control both these types of errors. Further, the efficiency of PDS can get severely battered if the system suffers from pilferage or corruption (i.e. leakage of foodgrains from the FPS to the open market).
Classification of Poor Families:
Poor households are classified as

1. BPL families (i.e. households below the poverty line)

2. The non-poor households are classified as APL families (i.e.households above the poverty line).
In short, a public distribution system is supposed to provide food security to the poor by insulating them from the impact of rising prices of essential commodities thereby maintaining a minimum nutritional status. The essential commodities distributed through the FPS mainly include the four main items of wheat .rice, kerosene and sugar. However, to protect the BPL families from the effect of rising food prices the government may at times distribute pulses and edible oils at subsidized rates through the ration shops (alternative name used for FPS). PDS can ensure food security, in true sense, only when both cereal and non cereal items (like pulses) are distributed through PDS. In practice, only cereal food items are distributed through PDS.
Procurement of Foodgrains:
During a good agriculture year, prices may sharply decline. Consequently, farmers may suffer due to low price while the consumers may benefit. On the other hand, during a bad agricultural year consumers suffer due to price rise but the benefit of such price rise is likely to be cornered by middlemen and traders as farmers are mostly illiterate and not well organised. Thus, the gains to the poor farmer may not be much as he has little surplus to sell. A poor farmer is also badly affected by inter-seasonal differences in foodgrain price. For instance, while during harvesting season, when prices are low, the economic condition of the poor farmer might force him to sell his produce, during the off-season he might have to buy foodgrains at a much higher price. To protect the farmers from such fluctuations in price, the government adopts a policy of procurement.
Under this, during the harvesting season, the government buys foodgrains from the farmers at a price called the minimum support price (MSP). Such procurement operations facilitate the government to build-up buffer stocks which is used for feeding the PDS.
Buffer Stock:
Buffer stock is an important pre-requisite for providing food security. It is well known that consumption of food takes place throughout the year while output of foodgrain comes at specific periods in a year. To bridge the inter-seasonal differences in production and consumption, there is a need to maintain a stock of foodgrains called the bufferstock.
Functions of buffer stock:

* Buffer stock are off-loaded during the lean season to maintain price stability .

* Required to counteract price fluctuations due to cyclical variations in agricultural production.

* Stocks of foodgrain are also required to run the PDS.

* Maintenance of buffer stock also serves as a disciplinary device against private traders who might hoard food items to create an artificial scarcity resulting in price hike.
Minimum Support Price:
To insulate cultivators from price risk, the government announces the purchase price for a crop at the beginning of each agricultural season. This is called as the minimum support price or the MSP. At the time of harvest, if the market price is lower than the MSP, then the government is ready to purchase all the crop brought to the market by a farmer at the pre-fixed MSP.
FOODGRAINS SCENARIO IN INDIA:
In order to understand the concept of food security vis--vis the level of its attainment,it is important to look at some empirical facts. In this section, we take a look at the trends, over 1951-2010, in:

* total area under agriculture, its production and productivity; and

* per-capita availability/consumption of foodgrains. While the area/production/productivity throws light on the overall availability of foodgrains, the percapita availability/consumption helps us to relate food security to the distribution/policy dimensions
Further, for agrarian economies with abundant population, for the availability of foodgrains to increase, it is important that the growth rate of food production is greater than the growth rate of population.
Additionally, the percapita consumption of foodgrains would depend upon many other factors like:

* percapita income of household,

* open-market prices,

* policy on procurement and release of buffer stock, etc.
Trends in food production in 1950 2010:
1) There is a 25 percent increase in area under foodgrains over the six decade period.The increase is marked with wide fluctuation from one period to the other. The highest increase was in the decade 1951-61 (19 percent) followed by 1961-71(8 percent). Over the next two decades of 1971-81 and 1981-91 there was a marginal increase of 2 and 1 percent respectively. During the post-reforms period of 1991-2010, there has been a decline (-5 percent) in the area under foodgrain production. The decline might mean a shift in the cropping pattern from foodgrains to non-foodgrains.
2) The trend in foodgrain production shows an increase of more than four times from 51 million tons in 1951 to 218 million tons in 2010. The highest increase (of 61percent) was in the decade 1951-61 which translates to 6.1 percent increase per annum. This is followed by the next highest increase of 36 percent during 1981-91. In the post-reform period of 1991-2010, the increase in production is by 24 percent.
In terms of the growth rate in foodgrains production, the increase has been highest (4.9 percent) during 1951-61 followed by 3.1 percent during 1981-91. The lowes growth rate of 1.1 percent in foodgrain production is during the post-reform years of 1991-2010 during which period the population growth has been 1.8 percent per annum. The combined period growth rate in foodgrains, over 1951-2010, is 2.5 percent which is higher than the population growth rate over this period of 2.04 percent. Thus, in spite of the higher growth in foodgrain production, there has been food security problem in India. This, therefore, suggests that higher growth in foodgrains production could at best be a necessary condition for food security in overpopulated agrarian economies.
4) The productivity per hectare has increased by nearly 3.5 times (from 522 kgs in 1951 to 1798 kgs in 2010). However, in terms of average annual (compound) growth rate, the growth in productivity over 1951-2010 is 2.1 percent which is only marginally higher than the population growth rate of 2.04 percent. To sum up, therefore, over the period 1951-2010: (i) there is an increase of 25 percent in the area under foodgrain production and (ii) a modest increase in foodgrain productivity.
Per Capita Availability of Foodgrains:
If the increase in production is utilised for building up stocks by either government agencies or private traders, then the per capita availability will not increase. The effect of exports of foodgrains will be similar. Thus,
Per Capita Net Availability = [Net Production Exports+ Imports +/- change in stock with government and private traders] Population
The trend in the per-capita availability of foodgrains (which is a better measure of food security than based on the aggregate indicators
FOOD SECURITY UNDER AL TERNA TIVE POLICY CONTEXTS:
The divergence between increasing per capita food availability on the one hand and declining per capita consumption on the other, poses food security concern relating to policy option and its implementation. From a theoretical perspective, we can consider three alternative policy contexts as follows.
1) Free Market Operation:
Let us consider a hypothetical situation where there are only two consumers:

* a poor consumer and

* a rich consumer
The quantity of foodgrains bought by poor consumer may be below the minimum norm of foodgrains required for maintaining a healthy life and the quantity of foodgrain bought by rich consumer above such a norm.
2) Free Market Operation :
Impact of Government Procurement Suppose the government intervenes by procuring foodgrains from the producers. This will reduce the supply of foodgrains in the market. This will compel the poor consumer to reduce consumption while for the rich consumer there is no such compulsion. Thus, although the per-capita availability of foodgrains in the economy may be high, the per capita consumption would be low when government only procures foodgrains but not release it to the open market or distribute it to the poor. Similar outcome emerges when government permits the export of foodgrains or puts restriction on its import.
3) Impact of Government Procurement and Distribution:
A more optimal situation is one when the government not only procures foodgrains from the producers, but also distributes a part of it to the poor consumer. But due to the distribution of foodgrains to the poor consumers, their dependency on the open market would decrease.The quantity transacted in the market will also be lower than in the two cases.
The net impact on the consumption of poor consumer depends upon other factors like:

* per capita quantity distributed;

* subsidized price;

* impact of procurement on market supply

* impact of distribution on market demand; etc.
Thus, to sum up, the per capita food consumption in an economy may, therefore, decline even when the per capita food availability is adequate. This may happen when:
(i) the government procures foodgrains from domestic producers but uses it only for building
buffer stock;
(ii) government encourages domestic producers to export but puts restriction on imports;

* government procures foodgrains from domestic producers but distributes only a part of it to consumers and hoards the major part for building a buffer stock.
POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES FOR FOOD SECURITY
Many policies and programmes have been implemented by the government towards realising the objective of food security. Some of the programmes have aimed at improving the income levels of the people by providing wage employment, or by improving the skills and earning capacity of the people. Others have aimed at promoting food consumption by providing food at a subsidized rate. Such programmes include specific efforts under PDS, mid-day meals programme for school going children, food for work programme, etc. Some of these programmes are universal in nature while others confine to a particular segment of the population.
Efforts Under PDS:
Of all the food safety operations in India, the most far reaching, in terms of coverage as well as public expenditure on subsidy, is the PDS.
The main objectives of the PDS are:

* Provide essential consumer goods at affordable price to the poor;

* Maintain stability in open market prices of foodgrains;

* Procure foodgrains from surplus regions and distribute it in deficit regions; and

* protect the domestic producers of foodgrains from unfair practices of traders by procuring foodgrains directly from farmers at remunerative prices.
Both the central and state governments participate in the procurement and distribution of foodgrains. The Central Government has the responsibility for procurement, storage, transportation and bulk allocation of essential commodities (viz. wheat, rice, sugar, imported edible oil and kerosene) to the states.The state governments have the responsibility of its distribution to the consumers through a network of fair price shops (FPSs) spread over the length and breadth of the country.
The commodities are made available by the centre to the state governments at a price called the central issue price (CIP). The CIP is usually lower than the economic costs of foodgrains which includes storage and transportation costs. The difference between the economic cost and the CIP is called the consumer subsidy which is borne by the central government. The operation of PDS has resulted in mounting food subsidy owing mainly to the widening difference between the procurement price of the government and the price at which it is finally sold in the PDS. For instance, in 2011while wheat was procured at a rate of Rs. 11.2 per kg, it was sold at Rs. 4.15 per kg. to a BPL family and Rs. 6.10 per kg. for a APL family. Over the period 1992-2011, the consumer subsidy has risen (from Rs. 2850 crores in 1992 to Rs. 62930 crores in 2011) by a steep 16.7 average annual percent.
Food Based Welfare Schemes:
Many specific programmes or schemes involving the distribution of foodgrains at concessional prices to the poor households have been launched by the government.Some of the important ones are:

* The Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) launched in 2000;

* The Annapurna Scheme launched in 2001; and

* The Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojna (SGRY) launched in 2001.
i)The Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) launched in 2000:
The AAY aims at providing subsidized foodgrains (at the rates of Rs. 2 per kg. for wheat and Rs. 3 per kg. for rice) to 1 crore poorest of the poor families (or around 5 crore persons) identified as unable to get two square meals a day on sustained basis through out the year.
The identification of the families is done by gram panchayats and gram sabhas.
ii) The Annapurna Scheme:
Targets poor senior citizens above the age of 65 years (and who are not covered by the National Old Age Pension Scheme) to provide 10 kgs. of foodgrains per person per month free of cost.
iii)The SGRY :
Employment based programmes in which foodgrains (supplied free of cost by the centre to the states) are used to give payment for work done i.e. the compensation for work done is paid in kind through in government schools in which cooked food is provided to children of classes I-VIII.The programme aims at enhancing the energy and protein level of poor children besides providing an incentive to attend schools. Additional nutrients like iron, folic acid and vitamin-A are also provided to the poor children as supplements in a larger scheme of convergence viz. the national rural health mission (NRHM).
National Food Security Mission (NFSM):
The NFSM was launched in 2007 as a crop development scheme. The mission aims at achieving the enhanced production of rice, wheat and pulses by 10, 8 and 2 million tons respectively. The time target for this achievement was the end of XI the plan (i.e.2012). The mission has since achieved the production of 25 million tons of additional foodgrains,a year ahead of its targeted date.
The missions approach consists of:

* Introduction of new farm practices,

* Distribution of HYV seeds,

* Treatment of soil to enhance its fertility for higher productivity, etc.
National Food Security (NFS) Bill:
The provision of foodgrains to priority households, the NFS Bill proposes to reform the targeted-PDS by:

* Doorstep delivery of foodgrains; and

* Application of ICT (i.e. information and communication technology).

* The latter is further leveraged with aadhaar, the scheme for allotment of unique identification number, for efficient identification/targeting of beneficiaries.
In case of non-supply of foodgrains, the Bill proposes to provide a food security allowance to the beneficiaries. The Bill provisions for transparency and accountability by measures like social audits, establishment of grievance redressing mechanisms, setting up of vigilance committees,etc.
IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT POLICY:
There have been both negative as well as positive effect of government policy on food security vis--vis its policies of procurement, distribution under PDS, etc. These can be explained as follows.
Consequences of Excess Stock:.

* It has deprived consumers of more free access to grain. Had the foodgrains not been procured, to that extent a large quantity would have been available in the market.

* It is not the case that this additional procurement was in the interest of expanding the buffer stock.

* The stock of foodgrains has generally been significantly higher than buffer stock norms and this extra stocking has only led to extra cost of storing them.

* Procurement beyond requirement adversely affects prices. Had the additional supplies been available in the market, it would have had a sobering effect on prices.

* It is common knowledge that losses during storage depends upon the duration of storage, the longer the storage the higher the losses.
Unhealthy/Unsustainable Production Practices:

* High procurement prices of rice encouraged farmers to produce rice, a highly water-intensive crop. The report on longterm grain management by the Abhijit Sen Committee observed that this mono-cropstrategy, which is environmentally unsustainable, has happened in regions which were not suitable for rice production from long-term sustainability point of view.

* Further, free electricity to the farmers leads to wasteful use of a scarce common property resource like ground water which cannot be sustained for long. As a result of intensive use of ground water for irrigation, water table in these regions has depleted. Farmers now have to bore much deeper for water. This has drastically increased irrigation costs.
Decentralisation of PDS:

* In recent past, instead of providing foodgrains, the centre is providing financial assistance to the state governments to procure and distribute foodgrains to BPL families at subsidized rates. Although at present, owing to their own infrastructural constraints not many states have come forward to adopt this policy, it is feared that decentralized procurement would increase the likelihood of less procurement, even non-procurement, which would be against the interests of poor farmers (who would be compelled to resort to distress sales).

* The Abhijith Sen committee had also in its report recommended continuation of the existing minimum support price base system of open-ended procurement of foodgrains by the centre/FCI. The committee has however, advocated rationalization of the MSP to reflect actual production costs incurred by farmers.
Exports of Foodgrains:
With the increase in production, India has become a net exporter of foodgrains. This is happening even when a large part of the countrys population goes hungry. The export price of wheat has been pegged at Rs. 4310 per tonne. This means the government is selling grain (wheat and rice) to foreign nationals at a price sold to the BPL families at less than half of its economic cost. On the one hand, the government refuses to lower the issue price for the BPL families on the contention that it would further increase the subsidy burden. But, on the other, it is continuing to provide heavy subsidy to foodgrain exports. Thus, the benefits of food subsidy, paid for by the Indian tax prayer, are being enjoyed by consumers and animal feed manufacturers (in countries like South Korea, Malaysia, Bangladesh, UAE, Indonesia, Oman, Iraq and the Philippines) rather than the poor Indian families it is intended for.
Impact of PDS on Poverty:
The gains in terms of income transfer from PDS to the poor is low as PDS is not effective in states with high incidence of poverty. Consequently, wide inter-state differences in performance of PDS and reduction in poverty levels have resulted. Many empirical studies have revealed that many poor households hav been denied ration cards, while many non-poor households have managed to obtain them. Thus, high levels of Type E and Type F errors have hampered the efficiency of PDS in India. Due to these leakages, the subsidy on PDS is ineffectively utilized. NSS consumption data indicates that PDS provided only about 8 to 20 percent of the food purchases of the poor; the rest having been purchased from open market purchases. PDS, therefore, needs massive reforms. In spite of these shortcomings, a subsidized PDS in a well-targeted manner continues to be the best form of food security for the poor.
FUTURE STRATEGY:
India has made great strides towards increasing the production of foodgrains since the mid-sixties. Presently, India ranks high in the production of rice, wheat, fruits and vegetables, etc. However, technological break-through achieved in 1960s has outlived its effective duration. The demand for foodgrains is, inter-alia, increasing due to increase in income of people in general. Further, as we noted above, the government has initiated steps to introduce the food security Act which would impose larger burden on our domestic production compelling us to import foodgrains from other countries. This therefore, requires appropriate strategies to be adopted.
Institution of Safety Nets:The poor being ill-equipped to withstand the impact of food inflation, there is a need to institute safety nets for their welfare. For this, the PDS needs to be reformed and further strengthened. Concerted efforts should be made to reduce the targeting errors in the PDS. Many more programmes needs to be introduced to improve the purchasing power of the poor and their food intake. As a short ter measure, to the extent the supply conditions warrant, essential items like pulses, edible oils, sugar, etc. should be imported to feed the PDS. But the long term strategy should be to increase domestic production and link programmes like food-for-work to generate assets leading to capital formation and sustained capacity to earn income by suitable productive self-employment activities.
Extension of AAY:
The Antyodaya Anna Yojana should be expanded to cover more poor families with enhanced entitlements. Unlike other schemes such as mid-day meals which are marred by logistic problems, the AAY scheme can be better administered. This would entail increased subsidy which is but a small price to pay for the food security gains of large number of people living below the poverty line. It would also provide a solution to the problem of excessive food stocks.
Second Green Revolution:
It is projected that the demand for cereals in 2020 range between 224-296 million tonnes. On the other hand, estimates of availability of cereals from domestic production range between 222 to 268 million tonnes. To meet the gap, there is a need for focusing on integrated approaches/mechanisms to achieve a second green revolution
Reference
Ignou materials B.Udhayakumar

BORDER SECURITY MANAGEMENT:

BORDER SECURITY MANAGEMENT:
India has extremely complex borders. It has 14818 kilometers of land borders and a coast line of 7516.6 kilometers. All states except Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana have an international border or a coast line. 92 of Indias 593 districts are border districts in 17 states. Indian borders run through plains, hills and mountains, deserts, riverine territories and marshes. Managing such a diverse border is a complex task but vital from the point of view of national security. The terrorist attack in Mumbai on 26 November 2008 brought out starkly that despite a number of measures taken by the government in recent years to strengthen border security, the terrorists could use the gaps in the borders to perpetrate their heinous acts. The attacks re-emphasised, inter alia,the need for better border management. Indias land and sea borders as well as air space continue to remain vulnerable.
Managing the borders is difficult for several reasons:
Some of our maritime boundaries are still unsettled. Land borders are not fully demarcated. Sections of our borders are based on artificial boundaries and not based on natural features. Border guarding forces are often under resourced and illequipped. They are also used for purposes other than border guarding. Intelligence gathering, intelligence sharing and intelligence coordination are imperfect. Institutional mechanisms for oordinating intelligence gathering, sharing and intelligence coordination are weak. Indias neighbourhood is in turmoil. Several of Indias neighbours are undergoing political and economic instability. India also has continuing border disputes with several of its neighbours. Uncertain borders not only raise bilateral tensions but also facilitate cross border infiltration, illegal migration, smuggling and crime Illegal migration has emerged as one of the major national security challenges.
Indo Bangladesh border:
The border of present day Bangladesh first came into being when theBengal Presidencywas created by the British. When India became independent from Britain in 1947, the country was divided among Muslim and non-Muslim majority areas.. Muslims were the majority in the western part of India and the eastern part of Bengal province. These two areas formed the new Islamic republic of Pakistan. The eastern part, East Pakistan, became the People's Republic of Bangladesh in theBangladesh Liberation Warof 1971.The border divides theGanges deltaregion and theSundarbanmangroveforest. It is crisscrossed by a large number of rivers. The area is mostly flat with slight hilly terrain in Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura and Mizoram sections. The border area is densely populated. The land is extremely fertile and is cultivated right up to the border pillars. Sometimes the border line passes right through villages, even buildings. The area is patrolled by the Indian Border Security ForceBSFof India andBGBof Bangladesh.
The border issues:

* smuggling livestock, food items, medicines and drugs from India to Bangladesh.

* Illegal immigrants from Bangladesh cross the border to India in search of improving their lives.

* Cross-border terrorism.

* The smuggling of weapons and narcotics
Border negotiation:

* Many conferences have been held betweenIndiaandBangladeshto discuss such issues as smuggling and trespassing, cattle lifting, trafficking of drugs and arms

* The border area is dotted with over a hundred Indianexclaveswithin Bangladesh, and over fifty Bangladeshi exclaves within India.

* In September 2011, the two countries agreed on land swaps to resolve the issue. The project has run into several delays and there is no clear completion date for the project yet.

* The barrier when complete will be patrolled by the Border Security Force. The fence will also be electrified at some stretches.

* The BSF claims that the barrier's main purpose is to check illegal immigration, and preventcross-border terrorism.

* Indiais presently constructing the Indo-Bangladeshi barrier, a 3,406 kilometres (2,116mi) fence ofbarbed wireand concrete just under 3 metres high, to preventillegal immigrationand the smuggling of weapons and narcotics.

* India has completedFlood lightsinstallation for 277 kilometers in theWest Bengalsector. Under the former government ofKhaleda Zia, Bangladesh troops clashed with the IndianBorder Security Forcein an attempt to prevent the fencing which resulted in deaths of several BDR personnel.
Indo-Nepal Border
India and Nepal have shared an open border since 1950 .such a border can be found in the Treaty of Peace and Friendship that the two countries signed that year. Provisions in the treaty, wherein citizens of both countries are given equal rights in matters of residence, acquisition of property, employment and movement in each others territory, provide for an open border between the two countries.The concept of an open border started only after signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1815. Under the Treaty of Sugauli, Nepal ceded Sikkim, along with territory west of river Kali and east of river Teesta. However, some territory in Terai was restored to Nepal after the revision of the treaty in 1816.Further in 1865, the British India government returned additional territory to Nepal in recognition of its support to the British government during the 1857 revolt. After the restoration of Naya Mulukto Nepal, the India-Nepal border was finally settled.
During colonial times, the British had an interest in keeping the border open for two reasons.

* Firstly, impressed by the fighting skills of the Gurkhas, the British wanted to recruit them into the Indian Army.

* Secondly, Nepal was seen as a market for finished goods from India.
To achieve these objectives, it was necessary to provide unrestricted cross border movement for both goods and people, and hence the idea of an open border.Independent India also followed the British tradition of an open border with Nepal. The open border between the two countries has facilitated close social, cultural, and economic exchanges and led to a special relationship between the two countries.People from both countries are free to enter the others territory from any point on the border, while the movement of goods is allowed along 22 designated transit points. Open border has been a great facilitator of strong and unique bilateral relations.At the same time, it has given rise to many irritants and problems that raise serious concerns.
Irritants and problems:

* Dispute along the Indo-Nepal border, mostly a result of the constantly shifting courses of the turbulent Himalayan rivers, ones relating to Kalapani and Susta.

* The submergence, destruction and removal of border pillars and encroachment into no-mans land by people from either side add to the problem.

* Forcible grabbing of land by either side along the disputed border also surface from time to time.

* An open border allows easy egress to terrorists and insurgents .

* e.g. In the late 1980s, Sikh and Kashmiri terrorists sneaked into India via Nepal .In later years, many insurgent groups from the North East, such as the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA), the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB), and the Kamtapur Liberation Organization (KLO), also misused the open border.

* In recent years, it has been reported that many terrorists have sneaked into India through the porous and poorly guarded Indo-Nepal border.

* Earlier, Maoists reportedly often escaped into India when pursued by Nepalese security agencies.

* Anti-national elements indulge in illegal activities, such as smuggling of essential items and fake Indian currency, gun-running, and drugs and human trafficking.

* Unrestricted migration over the years has produced territorial pockets dominated by people originating from the other country
Management of Indo-Nepal border:

* In order to check anti-national activities on the Indo Nepal border which is open and porous as also to improve the security along this border, 27 battalions of Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) have been deployed as the Border Guarding Force.

* Bilateral mechanisms in the form of Home Secretary level talks and Joint Working Group at the level of Joint Secretaries exist between the two countries.

* Discussing issues of mutual concern like containing cross-border crimes, smuggling, situation arising out of terrorist actvities, etc. at national, regional and local levels.

Indo-Myanmar Border:

* India-Myanmar boundary stretches for 1643 km. The boundary was demarcated in 1967 under an agreement signed by both countries.

* To begin with, the Treaty of Yandaboo of 1826 negated Myamarese influence on Assam, Cachar, Jaintia and Manipur and pronounced the Arakan mountain range as the boundary between British India and Myanmar. An Agreement was negotiated in 1834, which returned Kubaw valley to Myanmar.

* In 1837, the Paktai Range was accepted as the boundary between Assam and Myanmar. In 1894, the Manipur - Chin Hills boundary was demarcated, and in 1896 Col. Maxwell redemarcated the Pemberton - Johnstone line, placing thirty-eight pillars on the ground.

* These pillars were referred to in the 1967 agreement. The Lushai Hills-Chin Hills boundary was demarcated in 1901 with minor alterations in 1921 and 1922.Under the Government of India Act of 1935, Myanmar was separated from India, but the resolution of the border between them was left to the newly independent governments.

* At the time of independence, the boundary between India and Myanmar was partially disputed, particularly the position of Moreh along with a few villages.However, the rise of insurgency and subsequent violation of the boundary by both insurgents and security forces of both countries forced India and Myanmar to negotiate a settlement of the boundary on 10 March 1967.

* Though the boundary is properly demarcated, there are a few pockets that are disputed.

Border management Problems:

* The rugged terrain makes movement and the overall development of the area difficult.

* The internal dynamics of the region in terms of the clan loyalties of the tribal people, inter-tribal clashes, insurgency, transborder ethnic ties also adversely affect the security ofthe border areas.

* Close ethnic ties among the tribes such as Nagas, Kukis, Chin, etc., who live astride the border help these insurgents in finding safe haven in Myanmar.

* As a result, various insurgent groups such as the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN), the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA), and others have established bases in Myanmar

* The Indian government has been requesting the Myanmar government to take action against the Indian insurgents, but the Myanmar government appears either unwilling or incapable of flushing them out of its territory.

* The location of the boundary at the edge of the golden triangle facilitates the unrestricted illegal flows of drugs into Indian territory. Heroin is the main item of drug trafficking.

* The bulk of heroin enters India through the border town of Moreh in Manipur. It is reported that the local insurgent groups are actively involved in drugs and arms trafficking.

* The smuggling of arms and ammunition, precious stones and Chinese made consumer items finds its way into India illegally. Red Sanders, ATS (amphetamine type stimulant), grocery items, bicycle parts, etc. are smuggled from IndiaHuman trafficking is also rampant along the border.

* The provision of allowing the tribal communities of both countries to travel up to 40 km across the border without any passport or visa has also contributed to increased smuggling in the region.
Indo-Bhutan Border

* India and Bhutan share a 669 km long boundary.The boundary is demarcated except along the tri-junction with China. The process of demarcation of the India-Bhutan border started in 1961 and was completed in 2006.

* Like with Nepal, Indias boundary with Bhutan is also an open boundary.

* The border was peaceful till Indian insurgent groups such as the Kamtapur Liberation Organisation (KLO), United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) and National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB) established camps in the southern districts of Bhutan.

* Taking advantage of the open border, these insurgents would sneak into Bhutan after carrying out extortions, killings and bomb blasts. This problem has been effectively dealt with during the Bhutanese governments Operation All Clear, which saw the destruction and uprooting of all insurgent camps in Bhutanese territory.

* However, stray insurgent incidents such as extortion and killings are still carried out by the surviving members of ULFA along the border areas.

* Smuggling and trafficking are also rampant along the border.

* Chinese made goods, Bhutanese cannabis, liquor and forest products are major items smuggled into India.

* Livestock, grocery items and fruits are smuggled out of India to Bhutan. trafficking are also rampant along the border.

* Chinese made goods, Bhutanese cannabis, liquor and forest products are major items smuggled into India. Livestock, grocery items and fruits are smuggled out of India to Bhutan.
Indo-Pakistan Border:

* India shares 3323 km long and complicated boundary with Pakistan .

* The India-Pakistan boundary is categorised under three different heads.

* The international boundary also known as the Radcliff line. It is 2308 km long and stretches from Gujarat to parts of Jammu district in Jammu and Kashmir.

* The second is the line of control (LoC), or the Cease Fire Line, which came into existence after the 1948 and 1971 wars between India and Pakistan.This line is 776 km long, and runs along the districts of Jammu (some parts), Rajouri, Poonch, Baramula, Kupwara, Kargil and some portions of Leh.

* The third is the actual ground position line (AGPL), which is 110 km long and extends from NJ 9842 to Indira Col in the North.

* The LoC and the AGPL has been a scene of constant tensions with border skirmishes and firing between the armies and border guarding forces of both countries.

* The LoC has been vulnerable to constant infiltration by foreign terrorists, Kashmiri separatists and Pakistani army regulars for long.

* The India-Pakistan boundary also does not follow any geographical barrier. It runs through diverse terrain like deserts, marshes, plains, snow clad mountains, and winds its way through villages, houses and agricultural lands making it extremely porous.

* Porosity of this border has facilitated various illegal activities such as smuggling, drugs and arms trafficking, and infiltration.

* Heroin and fake Indian currency are the two predominant items of smuggling along this border. Other items include saffron, textile, mercury, which are smuggled from Pakistan.

* The villagers adjacent to the border are alleged to be involved in smuggling in a big way. Money laundering is also quite rampant along the border.

* A large scale hawala network is flourishing in Punjab, especially in LudhianaIn addition, the border population has also been subjected to hostile propaganda by Pakistan designed to mislead and sway their loyalties.

* The Sir Creek area, due to its peculiar terrain, makes the movement of border guarding forces very difficult and thus, provides scope for illegal fishing in the creeks.and thus, provides scope for illegal fishing in the creeks.
India-China Border:

* India and China share a 3,488 km long boundary.

* Unfortunately, the entire boundary is disputed.

* The line, which delineates the boundary between the two countries, is popularly called the McMahon line, after its author Sir Henry McMahon.

* In 1913, the British-India government had called a tripartite conference, in which the boundary between India and Tibet was formalised after a discussion between the Indian and the Tibetan plenipotentiaries.

* A Convention was adopted on April 27, 1914, which resulted in the delimitation of the Indo-Tibetan boundary. This boundary is, however, disputed by China which terms it as illegal.India and China had never shared a common boundary till, China liberated Tibet in 1950.

* It was then that the hitherto IndiaTibet boundary was transformed into an India-China boundary.Since 1954, China started claiming large tracts of territory along the entire border such as Aksai Chin in Jammu and Kashmir, Bara Hoti, Sanchamala and Lapthal in Uttarakhand and the entire Arunachal Pradesh.In 1957, China occupied Aksai Chin and built a road through it.

* This episode was followed by intermittent clashes along the border, which finally culminated in the border war of 1962. The boundary, which came into existence after the war, came to be known as Line of Actual Control (LAC).

* It is a military held lineThe rapprochement between the two countries in 1976 enabled India and China to initiate High Level border talks in 1981 to find a solution to the vexed problem. After eight rounds, the talks broke down in 1987 because of the Sumdorong Chu incident.

* In 1988, following Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhis visit to China, the Joint Working Group (JWG) was set up to look into the border problem. In 1993, the Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace and Tranquillity along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) was signed and the India-China Expert Group of Diplomatic and Military Officers was set up to assist the JWG.In 1996, the Agreement on Confidence Building Measures (CBMs) in the Military Field along the LAC was signed.

* The JWG has held 14 rounds of talks between 1988 and 2003. In 2003, two special representatives (one each from India and China) were appointed to find a political solution to the border dispute to find a political solution to the border dispute.

* Till 2009, these two special representatives had held 13 rounds of talks, but it seems they have not made much headway.

* Meanwhile, China has hardened its position on the border issue and has started laying claims on areas which were thought to be settled as for example the finger area in Sikkim. claims on areas which were thought to be settled as for example the finger area in Sikkim
India-China border throws up only a few challenges.

* There is hardly any circulation of people or goods between the two countries through the border.

* The Himalayan range which lies astride the boundary has prevented any large scale trans-border interactions between people residing on either side of the border.

* These gaps were the trade and migration routes through which people and goods flowed. Some tribes like Monpas, Sherdukpens, Membas, Khambas and Bhutias had social and cultural tries with people across the border.

* Many other tribes also frequented the markets of Tibet to buy and sell products, but all these stopped after the 1962 war.

* Presently, there are only three designated areas along the India-China border through which border trade takes place; these are LipuLekh, Shipki La and Nathu La.The volume of trade in these trading points is not large.

* However, large scale smuggling of Chinese electronic and other consumer goods take place through these border points.
Challenges to Coastal Security and Island Territories

* In addition to the land boundaries, India also has a coastline of 7516.6 km. The coastline is highly indented with numerous creeks, rivulets and streams along with inhabited and uninhabited islands, sandbars, and mangrove forests

* These water channels, most of which are interconnected and run deep inside the land, render the coastline porous and hence vulnerable to cross-border infiltration, smuggling, and arms and drugs trafficking.

* Existence of mangrove forests, sandbars and uninhabited islands along the coast provide ideal hideaways for infiltrators, criminals and contraband.

* In recent years, the use of sea by terrorists to carry out attacks as was seen during the 1993 Mumbai serial blasts and the November 2008 attack on Mumbai, have also added a new dimension to the vulnerability of the coastline.serial blasts and the November 2008 attack on Mumbai, have also added a new dimension to the vulnerability of the coastline.

* The matter is made worse by the existence of several high value targets such as oil refineries, atomic power plants, space stations, ports and naval bases along the coastline.

* While it is obvious that these installations would face a conventional threat from Pakistan in the event of war, there are growing worries about nonconventional threats as well as terrorist attacks, sabotage, etc., which could potentially inflict massive damage.

* For example, if terrorists were to attack a very large crude carrier carrying several million barrels of crude oil and seriously damage it resulting in a massive oil spill, the environmental and economic losses would be immense.

* It would not only lead to the destruction of marine life in the affected area but also disrupt maritime traffic. Straying of both Indian and Pakistani fishermen into each others territorial waters and their subsequent arrests has also been a perennial source of concern.

* It is feared that some at least of the arrested fishermen could be recruited by Pakistans Inter Service Intelligence (ISI) and used as agents against India and use their boats to sneak in arms, explosives and operatives into India.

* Since these boats have Indian make and registration number,indian make and registration number, they could easily evade attempts by Indian security agencies to track them.

* This is what seems to have happened when the Coast Guard let off the Kuber in which the terrorists travelled in November 2008.

* India also has Island Territories in its eastern and western seaboards viz. Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. The nature and location of these Island Territories necessitate their proper security.

* In recent years, intelligence reports have suggested that many uninhabited islands are being misused by terrorist groups and criminal gangs as transit points for smuggling arms and narcotics.

* Reports have also suggested that the Lashkare-Taiba is increasingly using the uninhabited islands off Lakshadweep as launching platforms for attacks against India.

* In addition, instances of piracy in the Malacca straits have increased manifold increasingly using the uninhabited islands off Lakshadweep as launching platforms for attacks against India. In addition, instances of piracy in the Malacca straits have increased manifold.

* The Andaman and Nicobar islands have seen large scale influx of illegal migrants from Bangladesh, Sri Lanka (Tamils) Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

* Besides, the Indian Ocean has been theatre of intense rivalries between great powers, mostly extraregional powers.

* China, in recent years has been quite active in the Indian Ocean region. With an objective to contain its potential adversary (read India) in the region, China has helped Myanmar to construct a naval base at Haingyi and set uplistening posts in Coco Island, close to Andaman and Nicobar.

* It has also helped Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to built ports, which could be utilised by China during adverse times.
Governments Response

* Although the Indian government had been formulating various schemes for managing these diverse challenges, the concept of border management entered the government lexicon only in the wake of the Kargil conflict of 1999, and the subsequent report submitted by the Kargil Review Committee.

* Based on the recommendations of the Review Committee, in April 2001 the Government of India set up a Task Force on Border Management under the Chairmanship of Madhav Godbole.

* This Task Force was part of a Group of Ministers (GoM) constituted to review the national security system as a whole and the recommendations of the Kargil Review Committee in particular.
The Task Forces objective

* To consider measures for border management and, in particular to consider the recommendations of the Kargil Review Committee in this regard and formulate specific proposals for the GoMs consideration.

* The Report of the Task Force, which was presented in 2001, is the first comprehensive document on border management.

* The report observed that the countrys borders cannot be effectively managed because of certain inherent problems such as their disputed nature, artificiality and porosity, which according to it give rise to multiple problems like illegal migration, smuggling, drugs trafficking, and trans-border movement of insurgents.

* In addition, the multiplicity of forces employed to guard the same border, their repeated withdrawal from the borders for other duties, the lack of adequate infrastructure along the border, etc prevent them from efficiently guarding the border.

* The GoM broadly recommended that concerted efforts be made to settle border disputes and demarcate the borders at the earliest opportunity.

* It also recommended that a Department of Border Management be created under the Ministry of Home Affairs, which would focus solely on border issues.

* It also recommended the establishment of a marine police force, strengthening of Coast Guard and setting up of an apex institution for coordinating various maritime issues

* The Report also recommended accelerated development of infrastructure along the border, especially to wean away the border population from illegal activities.

* Government towards managing the borders has four important elements, viz. guarding, regulation, development of border areas, and constituting bilateral institutional mechanisms for resolving disputes and ironing out conflicts with neighbours.
Guarding the Borders
Beginning in 2001, different border guarding forces were deployed in different borders.

* The BSF has been assigned responsibility for the India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh borders.

* Assam Rifles (AR) for the India-Myanmar border.

* The Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) for the India-China border

* The Sahastra Seema Bal (SSB) for the India-Nepal and IndiaBhutan borders.
For managing the borders effectively, it is important to have better surveillance. Surveillance is carried out by conducting regular patrols by the border guarding personnel. Border out posts (BOP) have been set up all along the borders Government has announced its intention to create additional BOPs along the various international borders.
For securing the riverine and creek areas along the India Bangladesh and India-Pakistan borders, the water wing of the BSF is deployed In addition, several electronic surveillance equipment like Night Vision Devices, Hand Held Thermal Imagers, Battle Field Surveillance Radars, Direction Finders, Unattended Ground Sensors, High Powered Telescope, etc. are used by the border guarding forces as force multipliers for greater surveillance as force multipliers for greater surveillance.
Development of Border Areas

* Border areas remain inaccessible and underdeveloped due to difficult terrain and lack of facilities like proper roads, educational institutions, and hospitals.

* Lack of economic opportunities makes the border population more susceptible to take up smuggling and trafficking.

* Keeping in mind these problems, the union government initiated the border area development programme (BADP) in 1987 to provide adequate social and economic infrastructure, promotion of participation in development, eliminate sense of alienation, and instilling a sense of security among the border people
BADP schemes:

* Comprise of development of community-based infrastructure like forestry, pasture land, fishery ponds, floriculture parks, community centres, mobile dispensaries, mini marketing yards, etc.

* Over the years, the nature of the programme has changed from a schematic one with emphasis on education to a state-level programme with emphasis on balanced development of border areas.

* Grass root level institutions such as Panchayati Raj Institutions, District Councils/Traditional Councils are encouraged to participate in deciding the priority schemes for their areas.
Securing the Coasts and Island Territories:
For securing the coast, the government of India has implemented a three layered mechanism.

* At the outermost layer, the Indian Navy patrols the high seas and carries out aerial reconnaissance with ship-based aircraft.

* The intermediate layer comprising of the Exclusive Economic Zone (between 12 and 200 nautical miles) is patrolled by the Coast Guard.

* And the territorial waters are patrolled by the Coastal Police.
On the recommendation of the Task Force, the Indian government launched the coastal security scheme in 2005-06. The scheme envisaged, over a period of five years, the establishment of 73 coastal police stations equipped with 204 boats, 153 jeeps and 312 motor cycles for mobility on coast and in close coastal waters.

* The state governments of Maharashtra and Gujarat have made it mandatory for all the fishing vessels to install Global Positioning System (GPS) and high frequency wireless system. These equipments help the fishing vessels in ascertaining the international borders and remain within the Indian territory.

* Major ports of the country have been made International Ship and Port Security (ISPS) Code compliant. These ports are guarded by the CISF (Central Industrial Security Force) personnel.

* Vessel Traffic Management System (VTMS) and Automated Identification System (AIS) aimed at improving the security of the Port by monitoring the movement of vessels have also been installed in these ports.

* Following the Mumbai terror attacks, the government has also announced a series of measures for strengthening coastal security of the country. These include: expediting the implementation of coastal security scheme peedy delivery of 204 interceptor boats, easing of environmental norms for setting up coastal police stations, issuance of multi purpose identity cards to all fishermen, seafaring personnel and coastal villages, implementation of uniform licensing of fishing boats across the country, transponders and Global Positioning System on registered boats for identification and tracking,

* Deployment of commando units of Central Industrial Security Force in all ports,

* Constituting unified command for coastal districts to counter terrorist threats from sea.
In addition, the Defence Minister announced the setting up of Joint Operation Centres (JOCs) at Mumbai, Visakhapatnam, Kochi and Port Blair to enhance intelligence gathering, maritime domain awareness and coordination among various security agencies. According to the Minister, the Navy will have a new specialised force called Sagar Prahari Bal .For the security of the Island Territories, the Indian Government has set up a joint command in Andaman and Nicobar called the Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC) comprising personnel of the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and the Coast Guard.
Conclusion and Recommendations:
Given the difficult terrain and complex socio-economic milieu along the borders, coupled with unhelpful neighbours, effective management of Indias international borders is quite a challenging task .Problems like smuggling, drug and human trafficking, illegal movement of people, goods, insurgents, and criminals across the border, tensions between the border guarding forces of the two countries, etc., have further added to this challenge.
Guarding:

* Identify sensitive areas along the border and increase the number of border posts in these areas.

* Also augment the strength of the border guarding personnel in sensitive border out posts.

* Train the border guarding forces and equip them with modern gadgets and weapons for better surveillance of the border.

* Install alarm systems to detect breach of fence and respond quickly.

* Ensure the availlability of adequate numbers of personnel for border guarding duties all the time.

* Improve the working and living conditions of the border guarding personnel to boost their morale.

* Ensure better coordination among all agencies involved in border management such as the border guarding forces, Customs, intelligence agencies, and state police.

* Sensitise the people living along the borders and encourage them to work as eyes and ears for the border guarding forces.

* Enlist local people in the border guarding force as they are aware of the terrain and language of the areas.
Regulation:

* Do not allow human habitation or cultivation in the intervening area between the border and the fence. They obstruct the line of vision

* Legalise trade in essential items to prevent smuggling.

* Open markets near the border where people can buy and sell goods without paying any duties Issue multipurpose identity cards to the people residing along the borders to distinguish between Indian citizens and illegal migrants.
Development:

* Work towards all round development of the border areas to wean away the border people from illegal activities as well as to dispel the feeling of alienation in them.

* Ensure greater participation of the border population in their economic development.
Bilateral mechanisms:

* Strengthen bilateral mechanisms by frequently convening meetings of concerned officials to iron out tensions as well as to resolve border disputes.
Coastal Security:

* As far as coastal security is concerned, while the government has initiated a number of schemes to safeguard the creek and coastal areas, many areas of concern still remain

* A major challenge for the border guarding forces is the widening gap between the sanctioned and existing infrastructureand manpower.

* Delays in the release of funds by the government hinder their efforts to strengthen their capabilities. Address manpower shortage for the coastal police by recruiting retired Coast Guard and Navy personnel.

* Enlist people from coastal villages in the Coastal Police Force. Their seafaring experience is likely to be an asset

* Consider incentives such as special allowances and as special allowances and insurance to overcome the reluctance of police personnel to carry out coastal patrolling.

* Impart extensive and specialised training to the Coastal Police personnel to change their indifferent attitude towards coastal security.

* Impose steep fines on fishermen found violating the international boundary. On repeated violation, cancel the licences of offending fishing boats Impart extensive and specialised training to the Coastal Police personnel to change their indifferent attitude towards coastal security.

* Impose steep fines on fishermen found violating the international boundary. On repeated violation, cancel the licences of offending fishing boats licences of offending fishing boats

REFERENCE:
1)INDIAS BORDER MANAGEMENT BY IDSA(Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses
New Delhi)
2)HOME MINISTRY REPORT
B.Udhayakumar