Sociology paper-2 Revision Notes

Sociology paper-2 Revision Notes
Chapter 1- Indian Thinkers
AR Desai- Marxist- Student of Ghurye- Social background of Indian Nationalism- historical as well as dialectical approach.
Pre colonial: Feudal System different from European- Cooperative feudalism- state was taking tax without any measures for the development of it.
Colonial: Zamindari system- trade monopoly- destruction of SSI and artisans.
Post Colonial: Green Revolution-PRIs-landlessness and Naxalite movement-Policies in interests of the rich industrial houses-12 families and 80% of the industries.
Criticism- MN Srinivas Naxalism started during communist government of Bengal-Studied only modes of production, ignoring education, culture, ideology etc- MS Gore Post colonial periods Cooperatives have reduced poverty- SC Dubey on community programmes- Y Singh said Desai directly didnt use Marxism ideas, gave a platform for study of Indian society.
MN Srinivas- Structural Functionalist by his teacher AR Brown- Student of Ghurye- field work strongly against book view- founder of structural approach in India- got to field, do empirical study.
Caste system-sub caste and sub sub caste system-rejected Varna view of caste system by Dumont-Ritual criteria (food, language, speech etc) and Secular Criteria (education, wealth, power)- Earlier ritual was important, advent of foreigners Secular became important- Dumont was telling village was a myth and caste is the reality, but Srinivas gave important to both caste and village- Ritual mobility via Sanskritisation- Sanskritisation becomes easier when they improve their position in the secular sphere- Rise of Dominant Caste- Land Reforms PRIs- Green revolution- AGJR (Ahir, Gujjar, Jats, Rajputs).
Village system- Critical about Marx view of self sufficient little republic- Critical about Dumont view of village is a geographical territory- Srinivas talked about village exogamy-uniting during festivals-uniting against external aggression- going across villages for needs and commerce- village as identity- caste divides, village unites.
Structure of joint family- Srinivas distinguishes between joint household and joint family- AR Desai viewed rise of nuclear family in urban centres as rise of capitalism- Srinivas told that in so called nuclear family jointness is still present- during child birth elders are invited either from husbands side or from wifes side- decisions are taken in nuclear family after consultation from the joint family-joint household is breaking down but not the spirit of jointness.
Social Changes- Westernisation-150 years of British rule- railways, press, radio, television, modern technologies- News paper glorifying caste system via matrimonial columns- Temples are collective gathering for where politics and economics are discussed-balance between European modernity and tradition.
GS Ghurye- Indology- Study of Indian society using religious texts, Indian art, architecture, folklores, legends, myths Use of Sanskrit text Student of Prof Rivers- Method of diffusion.
Caste System- Caste and Race in India Method of diffusion he doesnt glorify caste or condemn caste- he told caste is product of Indian culture- Caste comes through advent of Aryans- In Aryans time it was based on DoL- but no concept of Superior or Inferior- Priests and travellers glorified caste and it spreaded to south India-6 characteristics of caste system- segmentation-hierarchy- civil and religious disabilities and privileges restricted occupation- restriction on food(offering cooked food, raw items etc)- endogamy- Once caste was binding, now it is polarising society- Brahminic domination- Caste is not static- Dumonts views also same as Ghurye Brahminical supremacy- Srinivas criticised the Brahminical view.
Tribes- tribal deities same as Hindu deities- Animism, totemism and naturalism present in Indian society- tribes are backward Hindus as they are slowly adopting Hindu culture- Ghurye criticised Elvins approach of isolationism.
Prof Venugopal The content of sociology is changing womens issues, environmental issues, social protests, globalisation etc- which is away from the traditional Indian sociology approach- study of caste, family, marriage etc.
Dumont- Western sociological concepts cant be directly applied to study Indian sociology. Indian society is different; an ethno centric approach is needed to specially study about Indian society in great detail.
2-Social background of Indian nationalism
Early 19th senctury-cultural awakening-reform movements against orthodoxy-foundation of nationalism.
1885 to 1905-INC formation-progress of nationalism.
1905 to 1918-extremist phase-lal bal pal era- violent revolution- spirited nationalism
1918 to 1934- era of Gandhi- bourgeois and middle class-peasant class champaran, kheda, bardoli .
After 1934-All sections included- nationalism at its peak- independence
Internal colonialism replaced external colonialism
Partha Chatterjee- no link between people and nationalism- people were used for the interest of the elites.
Theosophical society- Not only Sanskrit is mother of all languages- Indian culture is mother of all cultures.
Vivekananda- Indian culture has solutions for all the problems of the world.
Rajaram Mohan Roy- Indian culture-degradation by dogmas and false believes- welcome British- to modernsise it.
Rightist- Sanskritik culture- unification across diversities.
Gandhiji-wanted a unified nationalism-not a hindu muslim nationalism- love brotherhood among people of all sections.
Grassroot development is the need- decentralised movements for their needs and demands- to accomodate Indian nationalism.
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Modernisation of Indian tradition
European modernity- ideal for the world-renaissance-art of questioning and enquiry-secularism in Europe.
Education- secular- liberated from church domination.
Value transformation- political sovereignty- equality-fraternity-democracy
Nehru-glorified Indian modernity- rural urban devide in indian modernity
India-selective modernity-Europe-absolute modernity
Gandhiji- not a symbol of modernity- varna system but not based on birth- believed in hinduism but believed in equality.
Peter Berger- modernity-cancer-throws people out of country-alien in other places- confusion among masses-social hopelessness among the new generations.
Anthony Giddens- modernity has glorified bourgeois capitalist interest.
Nehruvian era to LPG era-modernity in India.
British era modernity- Bengal intelletcual capital- Delhi political capital-Bombay economic capital.
Tradition and modernity in dialectical relationship- can modernity effect is same across traditions-can modernity and tradition share same set of attributes.
Modernity is not endogamous to India-a European concept.
Peter Worsley- modernity and sociology relationships- sociology out of modernity- sociology also questions modernity- dynamic and dialectical relationships.
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Modernity in Europe
Celebration phase-questioning phase-rejection phase
Simon,Comte,Spencer,Marx,Weber,Parson- celebrated modernity for diff reasons.
Immanuel Kant- modernity spirit of human reason-away from dogmas,superstitions,myths.
Comte and Spenser- modernity-industrialistion-emotions,ritualism and orthodoxy are replaced by law,rationality,growth,technological development and rise of inclusive society.
Modernity-cant be said as good or bad- modernity gives rise to industrialisation-controlled by capitalist class-alienation of working class- state should take control of it for equity and happiness of the masses.
Weber-modernity-rise of rational legal authorit.
Parson and Durkhime- modernity-technocratic division of labour-social integration-chances of mobility.
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After first WW- modernity was questioned- armed race.
Peter Worsley and Anthoney Giddens- modernity double edged weapons- economic development vs homelessness, disillusionment and dependency- in recent times rebellion against modernity is starting as new social movements.
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Modernity and tradition in India
British justified colonial rule saying- they can liberate people from uncivilised society to advancement and morality- Hence early reform leaders accepted western thoughts to modernise India.
Yogendra Singh- Brahmo Samaj- first step towards modernity-Arya Samaj took blend of modernity and tradition.
Abhijit Pathak- Indian intelligentia accepted modernity with scepticism-from Dayanand Saraswati to Gandhi and Nehru Anglo Sanksritik education.
Vivekananda and Arobinda Ghosh- Connectivity between Indian and western values.
Bankim Chndra and Ram Mohan- glorified teachngs of Upanishads.
Tilak used ritual festivals for political unification.
Gandhi also used religious unity not political unity.
MN Srinivas in his analysis of westernisation and social change in India. He considers modernisation is a value loaded concept because it is generally perceived as anything modern is necessarily good. He prefers to use westernisation as against modernisation to understand social change in India advocating 150 years of British rule has resulted into technological changes, institutional changes and value transformation in Indian society. However these changes are selective, optional than being completely wholesome. He gave the example of modern technologies like printing press, telephopnes, newspapers and other agencies of mass media to imply how they glorified traditional values without compromising their modern desirable roles. Therefore tradition and modernity are mutually coexistant and India and one can't replace outrightly the other. The Indian modernity selective, preferential and partial modernity.
Yogendra Singh- highly forceful to dismantle tradition- book "modernisation of Indian tradition"- laws like abolition of child marriage act, abolition of Sati, Hindu marriage act, Hindu adoption and maintenance act enormously influenced the status of women in India. Women in traditional Indian society didn't have right over their family, children,property, right to divorce that has now been granted to them. Hence self-assurance to women, respect to their dignity and equality can be considered as impact of modernity in India.
Modernity-technology-industry-agricuture-massive employment opprtunity-occupational mobility. But the benefits hav not been reached to all section of society.
Yogendra Singh- modernity- competitive character among all the stake holders. Political modernity- democracy- political parties- constitutional rules- citizenship-acceleration of public participation in democratic process- traditional domination of selective bodies has gone- peasants, factory workers,vrural people are demand mobility and political power.Traditional values are verge of extinction- MS Gore and SC Dubey supported Singhs view.
TN Madan writes that people who accepted modernity have closed mind as compared to those who don't go for modernity and have open mind as they question modernity.
State and religion- Indian constitution preamble says secular- But social life influenced by religion- e.g food also has cultural implication- veg or non veg.
Hilferding Rudolf- selective modernity- GR as a symobl of modernity- but beneficiaries of modernity are going for political domination without forgetting tradition and caste-Therefore Indian modernity is Indian in character wherein Andre Beteille tells that "caste old is replaced by caste new.
BR Ambedkar indicated that modernity should be universalistic in character. Its benefit should not be pocketed by few people therefore reservation is essential for unprotected people for a long period of time. To make modernity influential in India one should be allowed to choose his own caste. He was allergic to Hinduism and Christianity but he too wanted religion Gandhiji wanted Hinduism and Ambedkar wanted Buddhism. They both wanted tradition and modernity juxtaposition but how, it differed.
Dr Ambedkar believed that since the benefits of modernity is not reaching the marginalised section they have the right to rebel.
Feminist view on modernity points out that women are twisted between official and domestic demands. Sexual harassment and exploitation at place of work, unequal pay for equal work etc.
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Protests and Social reform movements in colonial period
Protest-peoples desire to change- may not bring change-gives a sense of satisfaction- not accidental- driven by ideology and interest- when it is driven by ideology, becomes sustainable- offers foundation to social movements.
Liberal sociologist- protest can be multi dimensional- political , cultural, economic and social.
Ramchandra Guha considers protest is manifested in different forms like Pradarshan,Rasta Roko,,Jal Samadhi, Fast unto Death( recent Anna Hazares protest), Gherao etc.
Sociologist say about protest- manifestation of People's Power who are dissatisfied with the policies, programmes and symbolic form of cultural domination introduced either by dominant class or by the state.
Hindu reform programme-2 aims- hindu unity- to prove that equality and inclusiveness in the hindu culture-Arya Samaj movement- Theosophical movement or Suddhi movement- Brahmo samaj movement taken up by Ramakrishna mission.
Arya Samaj movement- Vedas should be considered sacred-unity of faith among all Hindus-abandon caste system, pilgrims visit, untouchability and glorify idea of purity of soul and promote fraternity- eliminate attributes of polytheism, ritualism, Brahminic supremacy, sectarian division.
once Varna was greatly based upon its qualities and capabilities than on the basis of birth. This movement fascinated a large body of Shudras in case of North India to go for Sanskritisation and challenge Brahminic monopoly. rise of Jats in North India can be attributed to the
impact of Arya Samaj movement. supported by Lala Lajpat Rai.

Arya Samajists accelerated Suddhi movement- encouraged the converts to revert back into the fold of Hindu community. glorification of Hindu culture-foundation of nationalist movement in India.
Theosophical society driven by ideology of Max Muller perceived that Hindu cultural tradition is both unique and ancient. glorified the teachings of Bhagwat Gita, Vedas, Upanishads and indicated Hindu theological doctrine are analytical and logical and therefore it could offer a solution to all the problems of the world.
Brahmo Samaj Movement- Liberal cultural movement- more dynamic and inclusive than arya samaj movement- emphasised on women empowerment, liberal education, secular values and challenged the caste system ,Brahminic orthodoxy and Hindu religion in totality- borrowed ideas from Upanishads .
Strong link between Brahmo Samaj and Ramkrishna mission-as they talk about secular values, unity of God, Universality of truth, fraternity among people belonging to different religious faith. No political agenda like fighting war against British. It emphasised on creation of missionaries and provided a platform for glorification of religious tolerance, missionaries activities. It opened upschools and colleges- salvation only through knowledge.
All the three- Arya Samaj-Brahmo Samaj-Ramkrishna Mission- initiated by upper-class, upper caste Indians to bring reforms in Hindu society preaching thet there shouldn't be hierarchical social order and that society can be transformed into egalitarian system.Critics- all these started by upper caste and class people-no influence on the masses- their ideas were not understood by masses.
Ghanashyam Saha- distinction between culture and class movement- reform movements wanted changes in the system- peasant movement wanted change of the system.
Yogendra Singh- Reforms movements indications for quest for modernity-they were driven by high caste and class people-so modernity in india primarily enter through upper caste and upper class.
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Subaltern Reform movements
Satya Sodhak Samaj- Jyotiba Phule-MH- glorified the ideology that indigenous rulers of India belong to Shudra community- with the advent of Aryans into North India and subsequently their conquest over the other parts of the country injected caste systems into traditional egalitarian society- Caste identity, variation in occupations based upon caste divided the Shudras who were historically equal-The Shudras in their own soil, forgetting their own culture started fighting war with each other-people started evaluating their status with reference to Brahminic ideas, practices and the concept of Paap Punya - Jyotiba Phule wanted all the non-Brahmins of West India to develop a newfound identity of Bahujan and stand unified together against Hindu culture, Brahminic orthodoxy- He gave a new identity to all the non-Brahmins of Maharashtra as Marathas- Therefore the rise of Maratha consciousness as against Brahminic consciousness is a manifestation of subaltern cultural protest.
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Self-Respect movement- E V Ramasamy Naicker- Tamil Nadu- encourage unity among all the non-Brahmins of South India indicating that South Indian culture is ancient, unique and endogenous-Caste is pathological element introduced into egalitarian sort Indian society- encourage the non-Brahmins to go for education-small family names-stay away from spiritual activities-commit oneself to intensive economic activities-He asked people to glorify their self-identity- rather than to be tempted by Sanskritisation and added reservation in provincial assemblies on the basis of caste.
With the effect of SRM- from 1920- people forgetting intercaste differences- took the state power- under Dravidian movement- During this movement anti-Brahminic, anti Sanskritic, anti Hindu and anti-North Indian sentiments got momentum.
This movement cannot be considered as secessionist movement because it was a Protest against an alien culture enforced upon the indigenous community. When GS Ghurye considers this movement as secessionist MS Rao call this movement as reactionary reflexive movement.
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SNDP Movement- Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalana- Narayan Guru- Kerala- protest against the Brahmin in Kerala- asking the non Brahmins and non Nair caste to stand unified- parallel schools and temples for lower caste in which priests and teachers were belonging to lower caste origin- indicated that Brahminic supremacy is a product of the access to education- If non-Brahmins follow this secular standard then they will be never subdued to Brahmins.
The subaltern movement offered foundation to Dr Ambedkar to search for justice and equality forthe Dalits in India. Ambedkar rejected Manu Smriti- He instituted Jat-Pat-Todak Mandal- believed that one cannot get justice and equality staying within the framework of caste and Hinduism- Hence he encouraged conversion into the fold of Buddhism- He believed that historic discrimination associated with them cannot be addressed by social reforms - Hence he suggested constitutional guarantee for freedom, liberty and equality for the Dalit community in India.
Social reform movements- first started by upper caste and class groups such as- Arya samaj movement- Brahmo Samaj movement- Ramakrishna mission. Then started the subaltern movements such as Satya sodhak samaj, Self respect movement- SNDP movement.
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Peasant movements
1857 to 1920-series of peasant movements- sense of integration cutting across their religious caste and language- Reasons: absentee landlordism- unauthorised zamindars- forced eviction of peasants from the land on non-payment of land revenus- land tenur system introduced by British- high interest rates for seasonal peasant loans- no improvements in conditions of agriculture- brutality of police and private army o land lords- no effective measures to protect peasants from natural calamities.
Eka movement-Moplah rebellion- Champaran- Kheda Satyagraha- protest against the exploitative colonial polices.
Peasant movement-foundation of Kisan Sabha.
By 1930s- All India Kisan Sabha- all India presence- burning tax records-attacked police- engaged with war against private army of landlords- gives a platform for the coalition for different groups of Indian population- Resulted coordination between landlords-peasants-intelligentia-and indian masses- gives platform for Nationalist movement in India.
Peasant movement was not restricted in the heartlands- Birsa Munda movement- Santhal rebellion- Koel uprising- got momentum in central part of India.
AR Desai Peasant movement broke down the linguistic,regional, tribal-caste division among the people of India injecting into them a common class consciousness. Colonial land revenue policy of capitalist interest affected indian peasants more than proletrait class of Capitalist Britain.Class consciousness in India glorified natinalism.
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3-Idea of Indian Village and village studies
70% population in 5 Lakhs villages dependent on Agriculture- cultural unit- contemporary political unit
Mughals- smallest administrative units
Britishers- Zamindari system etc little republics.
Gandhiji India lives in villages one cant imagine freedom movement without Indian villages taking part in it. Marx and Gandhi- Pre-developed economy because primitive techniques employed.
Andre Beteille- Siripuram Village- near Tanjavur Tamil Nadu villages are not driven by caste alone, class and power has also to be considered. He criticised British view that villages are closed society- he told human by nature appreciate change- so people in villages are also responding to change by at a slower rate. Britishs arbitrary policies, still villages adopted them and colonialism sustained in India, else it would have been thrown out.
MN Srinivas- Rampura village- rise of secular domination over ritual domination in village.
MS Rao- Yadavpur- economic affluence- self confidence to Yadavs- powerful in politics.
The little republics theory was discarded by MN Srinivas and AM Shah in their famous article Myth of self sufficiency- village exogamy- the incidence of foreign trade documented in Indian history expose village into the outer world- specialised markets like cattle markets etc or haats- political network via caste councils or local councils little republic concept was colonial bias- PRIs have exposed Villages.
Milton Singer and Mckim Marriott- rejection of self sufficiency concept- graveyards Barbers and Brahmins from nearby villages.
SC Dubey- Against self sufficient concept- Indian local cultures move into larger societies- Suniya started in a village became Rakshya Bandhan all over India- dance, drama, language move in a circular fashion.
Mckim Mariott- Concept of universalisation-cultural communication between village and larger community- green revolution peasant political party- village to national politics.
Land binds the village- myth of Marx and other British sociologists- Land outside the jurisdiction of the village.
Agrarian Social strcucture evolution of land tenure system
Scarlett Epstein- imapct of irrigation project and green revolution 2 south indian villages- relation between landholdings and caste.
Kathleen Gaugh- Kumbapetta village- Agrarian modernity has consolidated class division big bourgeois, rich farmers, petty bourgeois, semi proletraiat, pure proletariat.
Daniel Thorner- green revolution and land reforms did not help the poor- linkage between caste and class in agrarian India- capitalist agriculture- Malik(upper caste), Kisan(middle caste), mazdoor(lower caste).
Colonial Land tenure system- Zamindari-Ryotwari-Mahalwari- exploitation by British- ignorance among people aggreavated the situation-poverty.
Forceful cash crop cultivation-Economic interest by British- destruction of artisan industry- surplus labour for agriculture- British exploited.
Moplah rebellion-Kheda Satyagraha- Champaran satyagraha- Bardoli movement- Kisan sabha movement.
Imapct of tenure system :
Gandhian- relation between land lords and peasants- they should come together and give extra lands to the land less peasant.
Nationalist- State should take the responsibility to improve agriculture via cheap loans, credit, education etc.
Marxian-State should not take steps in reforming the land. Peasants should self mobilise themselves and carry arms and they should go for naxalite movement. WB and Kerala land reforms was successful due to communist govt.
Implication of land reforms of system:
After 20 years of implementation of land reforms- no change in landholdings of the upper class- strong link between caste and class- development of capitalist agriculture.
Benami transfers supported by state administration- claste and class strong nexus- primary source inequality.
GS Bhalla and GK Chadha- study on impact of green revolution in 20 villages of Punjab- both LR or GR have not helped land less and poor farmers- the benefits of GR and LR pocketed by rich farmers who have control over seed cooperatives, credit cooperatives and irrigation cooperatives.
Inequalities mass movements- maoist movements and naxal movements- rural development programmes should be reoriented to address the issues of poor.
Social Consequences of LR
Bhomiars of Bihar Jats of Haryana and Punjab- emerged as dominant class- more inequality and more polarisation.
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4-Caste System
Special type of social stratification found in India-Caste has its origin from a Spanish word Casta means bread, race or a complex of hereditary qualities.
Anderson and Parker- Caste is that extreme form of class organisation in which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by descent and birth.
Ghurye- Despite all efforts by students, we dont have a definition of caste.
Varna theory - Brahmin, Kshyatriya, Vaishya, Shudras- Occupation theory-Race theory etc.
MN Srinivas- Caste and Varna theory- 4 varnas and thousands of castes. Varna considers each Varna as unified groups, but there were subdivisions- Varna provides an ideological framework and economic perspectives.
Caste Mobility Ghurye and Britishers gave an ideological view on caste, Srinivas wanted to liberate caste from an ideological point of view- dynamic nature of caste- book caste in modern India and Social change in India- pollution was the obstruction in caste mobility- pollution is contagious, but purity is non-transferable.
Caste mobility has passed 3 different phases- Search for ritual mobility, secular mobility as a medium for ritual mobility, secular mobility an end in itself. 1. Non-Brahmins of south India migrated to Tirumala hills started operating as priests and became Brahmins. 2. Nairs of Kerala and Kayasthas of Bihar by the patronage of Mughals got property and power, and used those for their ritual mobility. He found out that Kings grace and socio-cultural contact has raised the status of Jats and Lingayats- Attempt of caste mobility has given rise to intra-caste conflicts.
Caste mobility is not an easy phenomenon like class mobility. Caste mobility is related to Sanskritisation.
Dominant Caste- Study of Rampur Village- multiple forms of dominance- Jats dominate economic sphere- Rajputs in political sphere- Brhamins in ritual sphere- class mobility is giving rise to caste consciousness- social distance among caste groups is becoming fluid- intra caste and inter caste conflicts are on a rise- impact of caste mobility is not uniform across the country.
Srinivas contradicted with Yogendra Singh and said class is not replacing caste.
Future of Caste system in India - He explained this in his book Dominant Caste and 20th Century- New avatar of caste. Caste consolidation after 1970- green revolution, cooperatives, PRIs, Zamindari abolition act- a large body of non-Brahmins and non-untouchables have evolved into dominant caste-dominant in economic and political sphere- no longer interested in Sanskritisation and focusing their attention on secularisation- Lingayats and Vokalingayats of Karnataka, Reddys in AP, Yadavs in UP, Bhumiars in Bihar- modern education, urban living, rural development programmes, influential in political spheres, own political parties or part of major political parties-they are identified as OBCs.
Ghanashyam Shah extended the concept of dominant caste. Dominant caste- power politics. Caste was important in past for ritual reasons- important in present for secular reasons. Caste-India is not being replaced by Class-India. People use both class and caste identity depending on the situation.
Srinivas pointed out that caste is taking different forms in all spheres of society be it political, economic or social, So imagining India without caste may be a constitutional vision but not an empirical reality.
Louis Dumont- Homo Hierarchies Concept of purity and pollution- followed structural theory- told western theories cant be applied to study Indian society- Caste is a synthesis of text and context- structuralists dont study the whole reality, they take specific reality.
He took ideas from writings of Emile Durkhime and Hegels.
Occupational Specialisation- Exclusivity of Brahminic position- Social difference among different castes. Occupation depends on cultural prescription rather economic consideration. Every caste is evolving keeping Brahmins as reference caste.
Purity and Pollution Things, beings and Phenomena- Ganga water, people and animal- Sanskrit knowledge. According to Dumont, purity and pollution are the ideas which guide peoples actions.
Caste is a system of ideas and values This is formal, comprehensible and rational system. He studied caste from ideological perspective using classical texts and historical examples- Ethno Sociological approach-Caste is not going to die- as it is based on consciousness.
Criticisms: No mention about politics about caste, over loaded with cultural aspect of caste. Brahminic exclusivity- New Manusmriti- Purity and pollution is a book view Jonathan Perry talked about non-Brahmin sadhus and saints- Andre Beteille pointed out differences among Brahmins and conflicts among them, considering them as unified and pure is a myth. Dipankar Gupta non-Brahminic reactions is not driven by respect- Jats consider Brahmins as inauspicious-contradiction to Dumonts theory- Sanskritisation is not out of respect, but a form of protest.
Beteilles criticism to Dumont- Dumont called European society as Homoequalis, despite presence of Pope domination- Homohierarchicus in case of India, Brahminic domination. Hierarchy will exist but not on only caste rather property, wealth, political power etc. Dumont was concerned about only one hierarchy- caste hierarchy. Beteille gives another view of inequality- reproduction of occupation in contemporary India like teachers children teacher, doctors children doctor etc. Nationalist movements, SNDP movements tried to uplift the status of impure classes-Dumont was silent on this type of social change.
Dumont-Ethno sociological matter- answer to the question why caste is persistent- a product of consciousness bondage of Hindu-cultural consciousness.
Andre Beteille on Caste- India cant be studied from the stand point of caste only- DP Mukherjee, Ghurye, Srinivas derived all inequalities in society into caste- Linked Bhadralok in Bengal, Bangerposhi in Bihar, Ashrafins in Gujurat; not based on caste but respected- multiple hierarchies in Indian society- so sociological studies should not be restricted to caste based studies- Book view highly stereotypical, field view highly mechanical, there should be a balance between these two.
Microscopic view on caste- Siripuram village, Tamil Nadu, field view- book class, caste and power- weberian theory of multiple dimensions of stratification- each hierarchy is influencing other hierarchy- caste hierarchy and class hierarchy- differential political power depends on the political network extends from village to the capital.
Brahmins, Non-Brahmins and Adi-Brahmins (untouchables)-backward class movements- Within castes, sub-castes, sub sub caste, number of threads a Brahmin wear- In case of marriage they search spouse from that particular sub group- intra caste differences along with inter caste differences-.
Modernisation, modern trade, employment opportunity introduced class aspect into caste and sub caste- in case of marriage both caste and class is being considered- people search spouse in sub sub caste, if not get search in sub caste, if not go for caste alliance- caste is changing having basic structure intact- Beteille was against Marxist DP Mukherjee and Yogendra Singhs point of view that caste will lose its significance.
Book Caste Old and New Beteille examined changing nature of caste- Inequality among sub caste groups- each group strive for economic and political domination- Since 1920s non-Brahmins have consolidated themselves- have formed political parties like DMK- Brahmins have become urban bound selling their land to Non-Brahmins. Among Brahmins class difference, economic or political terms etc traditional caste system was closed- slowly evolving into dynamic caste system.
Beteilles sociology was a protest against caste focussed society.

Untouchability- Rig Veda says about achhuts or chandals - Social discrimination is legitimised in Manusmriti different Sanskrit texts talks about untouchability- GS Ghuryes Race and caste in India and PN Prabhus Hindu Social Organisation- Ghuryes 6 points on caste system.
Early social reformists- Dayanand Saraswati, Vivekananda, Bankim Chnadra- differentiate between religion and caste- for nationalism to raise, untouchability to go.
Gandhiji- My heart bleeds, Caste must go, Untochability- a crime against God talked against caste system and untouchability- Caste is perversion of Varna- Varna system on DoL and holistic and inclusive and egalitarian- Caste though derived from Varna divides the society- Harijans- Caste system historic mistake-His distinction between Caste system and Varna system and favouritism for Varna system- Harijan sevak Sangh- 21 days fast against closing of temples for untouchables.
Different forms of untochability-from note book.
Ambedkar- untouchability is a matter of self dignity- form of satisfying materialistic need to the higher classes- ideological support given by Samakhya philosophy- which says people are born into two categories Sattvic and Tamasic. Shudras are always born into Tamasic. Ambedkar advocated for equality. Constitution and fundamental right against untouchability.

5-Tribal communities in India
Definitional Problems
Efforts by academcians- have been defined as group of indigenous people- language-territory-community ownership of property- traditional rituals-different customs-small size-endogamy-kinship bonds.
Kenneth D Bailey- to define tribe you have to consider caste-tribes egalitarian and not mutually inter dependent- caste system of organic solidarity-tribes have direct access to land, no intermediaries.
Sinha(1965) concept of civilisation- tribes relatively subsistence technology- hunting gathering shifting cultivation- egalitarian segmentary social system- guided entirely by non literate ethnic tradition.
In India- tribes are transforming themselves into caste system- have become muslims and christians-join the rank of peasantry- wage labourers in plantation works; mining etc- changing aspects of tribes.
Gonds,Santhals,Bhils are large in size and spread over large territory- Birhors of Bihar are in specialised form work; baskets making etc- Tribes are in govt jobs- some nontribals are taking up hunting, gathering activities.
Geographical Spread
8% of indian population- Himalayan region J&K, himachal, UK, NE- between Narmada and Godavari-Odisha, Bihar, WB, Jharkhand. In karnataka,TN,Kerala=less population.
NE-Arup,Mizoam,Naga,Megha=90% tribe- Assam,Tripura,Manipur,Sikkim=20-30% tribe.
Largest part=central india.
NE, sikkim,Himalayas= Garo,khasi,jaintia,Lapcha,Naga,Mizo,Bhotia,tharu.
Western=Bhil,Seheria,Mina, Worli, Girisia, Rebari, Dang.
Central=Munda,Ho,Santhal,Gond,Kondh,Chenchu,Oraon,Bhumij,Poroja.
Souhth=Toda, Irula, Badaga, Paliyan,Cholanaicken.-pcbit
Island communities= Jarawa, Great Andamanese, Nicobarese, Shompen, Sentinnclose.
Linguistic Classification
Astro Asiatic=Khasi,Nicobari,Santhali,Ho,Mundari
Driavidian=Toda, Kota, Kui, Oraon, Korwa, Badaga
Tibeto chinese=Lepcha,Miri,Dafla,Garo,Naga,Lushai
Indo European=Bhil, Hajong
Colonial Policies and Tribes
AR Desai- Colonial policy-systematic exploitation of forest and mineral deposits-throught the use of tribal labour-contractors and money lenders-protests were ruthlessly supressed-labeled tribes as criminals e.g Mina Tribe-De tribalisation
Labelling tribes as criminals-killing innocents to crate fear.
Gandhi-rising Hindu fundamentalism is against conversion of tribals by missionary activities.
Another View- Missionary activities-enlightment for tribes-spreading eduction-health etc.
British Act of 1891- Partially secluded area(tribal population at least 50%), fully secluded area (tribal population >80%)-tribals islands- no outsiders- permission needed for any activities- lead to distinction between caste society and tribal society- tribes considered caste as their enemy as Dikus(Dacoits)- Colonial rulers permitted contractors and traders to exploit-hostility between caste and tribe. Tribe-Caste divide lead to secessionist movement , is continuing even today, due to falty colonial rule.
After independence Nehrus panchsheel policy:
-tribal development should take place on their own genius
-development shouldnt be evaluated on how much money spent rather how many national characters developed.
-not to be kept in a state of isolation
-many developmental projects shouldnt be in introduced in tribal areas to accelerate the process of development
-tribal development should take place as per the need of the tribal people

Issues of integration and autonomy
Veerrier Elwin- isolation approach- tribals must kept away from their progressive counter parts- die out of cultural shock. Critics called it Museumology.
GS Ghurye- Critics of Veerrier Elwin- tribal development should nt building national parks- phase wise development- Tribe to caste and ultimately to class through taking caste based occupations.
LP Vidyarthi- Tribal development programme- since 4th 5 year plan- Community development areas- education, health, irrigation etc- involving tribals in mainline economy- proper rehabilitation plans in case of projects causing displacment- vocational training centres- integration with the larger economy and society- identify the tribes at the verge of extinction- protect them.

Worst victims of land alienation- development induced displacement- mining activities- forest acess restriction- encrachment into their cultural life- migration from mainlandto tribal areas- AFSPA in tribal areas-denial of justice-killing incocents considering them as maoists.
Maoist movement-Bodo land-naga rebellion- narmada bachao andoloan- kalinga nagar jajpur 2006- jal satyagraha on narmada dam- Hirakud-Tehri etc
Why all the displacement projects are only in tribal areas ?
Some calls its their manifestation of cultural myopia, some consider them as their search for a appropriate place in the social life, which has been historically denide to them.


6-Social classes in India
Class-Sociological Concept-Given by Marx- only Economic strcuture point of view- Sociological and Cultural Dimensions are also important. In Europe class conflicts- Industry and Feudal- In india other stratifications like caste, power, occupation etc
Caste based statification and class based stratification-dialectical relationship.
Agrarian Class structure
Revenue assessment of land- Zamindari, Ryotwari, Mahalwari.
Zamindari- Zamindar, tenants and agricultural labours
Ryotwari- landlord and peasants
Agrarian class-Feudal character- Zamindars collected tax- non working owners of the land- peasants were having no security of tenure.
Daniel Thorner Marxian approach- Even after land reforms measures- peasants continue to suffer more and the Maliks are enjoying the dominant position- has social relationships- the lower caste works as land less labourers- the landowning belongs to higher caste.
PC Joshi 3 trends in agrarian class- declining feudalistics and customary tenacy- rising of commercially oriented landlords- it increased the efficiency and productivity, but the conflict between the poor peasantry and the agriculture labourers are in rise.
TK Oommen- 5 Categories of classes in rural agrarian India- landlords- rich farmers- middle peasants- poor peasants- landless workers.
Andre beteille- Liberal point of view- Ownership- Control- Use of land.
Ownership: Entrepreneurial landlords- big owners- found in green revolution belt- profit motive.
Medium land lords- land is family property- for namesake they keep themselves attached to the land- absentee landlords
Small owners- dont go for self cultivation for culturl bondage- Cultural landlords
Controller- Some one who sees the land in the absence of the actul landowner-one can be owner, controller and user at the same time.
Users- No ownership- no controlling rights- work there for earning livelihood.
Beteille pointed out how in bengal after land reforms the number of small and marginal farmers expanded, who were earler share croppers.
Marxist 2 classes- conservative and radical- radical can bring revolution.
A R Desai upper class- middle class- lower class.
Utsa Pattnaik- studied Punjab and Haryana- 5 types- big land lords, rich farmers, middle peasants, small peasants, agricultural labourers. Big landlords- 50 acres or more, profit motive, technology, politically active, use hired labour. Rich farmers- 20 to 40 acres, highly ambitious, hired labours, at times family labours. Middle Peasants- 10 to 20 acres, family labour, little surplus. Small farmers- 5 to 10 acres, marginalised farmers. Agricultural labourers- land less labourers. The first 2 types big land lords and the rich farmers are controlling all the means of production and conslidating them.development of capitalist agriculture. In the GR belt polirisation becoming more prominent.
Neo Marxist view: Agrarian class structure cant be studied in isolation with the non-agrarian class. Money lenders, merchants, traders living in urban areas-linkage with the village land lords- procurements in the harvesting season from the small and medium peasants- they dont have voice to raise against them- - Exploitation Migration- suicide.
Anand Chakravarty- under class- cant fight against hegemonistic domination of landlords, police and legal courts- they accept inequality and start rebellion.
Liberal sociologist- consider the elements like feudalism, semi feudalism, semi capitalist, capitalist and caste class nexus- Nexus between agarian class and non-agarian class makes the situation complex- government programmes should take the holistic view before coming up with any plan.

Middle classes in India
Karl Marx- Middle class will vanish(petty bourgeoisie, small merchants who own their means of prodcution)
Marx Weber and Lockwood- Middle class population will grow- with industrialisation and urbanisation- depends on skills- old middle class(petty bourgeoisise)- new middle class( white coloured workers, salaried employee)
Talcolt Parson- Rise of middle class in industrialised society- analysis of meritocracy society.
Ordinary view- modern education- rational and competitive value- secularised in approach- consumerist class- aspiring for the mobility- capacity of social change.
A R Desai- talked about Indian mddle class and their role in indian nationalism- evolved from caste structure- middle classs role in bringing reforms in culture and religion- Social religious movements are middle class movements. British introduced press, railways, tv, radio, bureaucracy, judicairy, education- gave birth to middle class- nationalism to fight against British. Middle class composition across caste and region line- hence class unites and caste devides.
D L Seth Article Middle class in Modern India After independence the base of MC is expanding- In western and south india, MC came out of reform movemnts like Saty Sodhak Samaj of MH, Self Respect movement of Tamil Nadu, SNDP movement of Kerala- non-traditional and anti Brahminic view- demanding equity and control over power struture. Indian middle class grown out of soil- hold tight to the tradition and culture and tries to get benefits from modern institutions. Indian middle class is keeping one step on modernity and one step on tradition and trying to extract benefit from both.
Andre Beteille : questions the genesis of indian middle class- different sources at different point of time- not homogenous like west middle class. Habit of reading news paper- going for family vacation- spending money on non consumption- are constantly increasing. But interrelationship between a factory worker, a lower police man and a small trader takes place in hierarchical manner.Indian middle class has expanded but still carry hierarchical ideas- This view is in contrast to Yogendra Singhs view that with modernity class will replace caste.
1950-1980- industrialisation- modern education- modern jobs- bureaucracy- green revolution- modern trade- led to massive employemnt- no wish to consolidate their economic position- gave a sound base to peasant mobilisaion naxal movements was supported by intellectuals coming from different spheres of life.
Anti-emergency movement by middle class students, teachers etc.After glbalisation middle classes expanded- interests spheres broadened- women issues- civil rights issues- environmental probe- rise of civil society movements in India.
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Gurucharan Das- India unbound
Amartya Sen Argumentative Indians
Abdul kalam- India 2020
Post Liberalisation Indian scientists, industrialsits, researchers brinnging glory to to India by proving Indias human resource potential- global recognition.
Gurucharan Das- Globalisation- has given unbould limit for prosperity, mobility and happiness and self expression.
Amartya Sen- India s literacy campaign- transfering India into a knowledge based society- sustainable economic growth.
The Institute of Applied Economics and Resarch shows- 1947: 12% MC, 1957: 20%, 2001:58%, in 2020 it will be 70%.- middle class expanded- lower class is squeezed- upper class is not hegemonistic- more inclusive india,dynamic, growth oriented.
Skeptical views on MC: gender ineqality, hegemonistic domination in rural India, hijacking of modern benefits bt dominant class, distinction between literacy and functional literacy, women exploitation and environmental degradation.
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Industrial Class
British Rule- trading internal and external- export and Import business- growth of class of merchants- idustrial and commercial middle class.
Railways-modern industries- middle class invested in diverse fields- economicall and socially, became strongest class in India.
Independence- industrialisation- govt policies augmented the production- more rise of industril classes.
Accumulated wealth from colonial time- investement and reinvestment- businees carried on in family lines. Eg. Tatas, Birlas etc.- they supported freedom movement but not upto their capacity.
Started with tetiles- intermediate capital goods- consumer durables- possible because of patronage of the state. Tax benefits-Credit facility- export and import policies etc.
Recent time rise of MSMEs to get tax benefits and other credit related and interest subvention benefits.
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7-Systems of Kinship in India
Lineage and Descent in India
Lineage- a body of people who are arranged together on the basis of common blood linkage. Patriarchal society-daughter not part of fathers lineage group.
Classical antropologists- patrilineal-determining descent through the male line.matrilineal-determining descent through the female line.
Lineage system can be divided into 2 parts- Unilineal- a system of determining descent in which someone either belongs to fathers lineage or mothers lineage, both patrilineal and matrilineal are included under unilineal lineage system- Non unilineal- a system where exists multiple forms of relationships.
Indologist- Ghurye- role of descent in defining marriage, family, kinship and India. In northen India- some one cant marry within extended kinship group- marriage is driven by rules of kinship and descent.Ghurye indicated- Gotra and Charna are exogamous groups-brings dispersed people together.
Gail Omvedt Caste is an expanded descent system.
Andre Beteille- kinship in India so strong that- Voting is driven by kinship rather than on merir- Primary source of political recruitment :kinship group- Thus Democratic political system in India is engaged in social and cultural reproduction.
Krishna Kumar- Kinship in India is so intensive that- behind every corrupt man- there is an ambitious family- Industrial recruitment greatly takes place on the basis of kinship rather than on merit.
With modernity in India- kinship and descent have not changed a little also- so important to study under social transformation.
Role of descent and kinship not only decides private shperes of life like marriage, family etc rather very well defines occupation, political activities etc
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Types of kinship system
Irawati Karve- 4 different kinship zones- North, south,central and east.
North Indian Kinship System- Areas of more aryan culture influence and Odisha, Bihar and West Bengal. Patrikins and Matrikins are different. Within patrilineal system fathers brother is distinguished from fathers sister. Fathers brothers are also distinguished in terms of age, so differential respect is attributed to them.
Rule of marriage is highly exhaustive- One is not supposed to receive a woman from a group to which a woman is offered within 5 to 7 generations. One cant receive a woman from his mothers group, mothers mother group, fathers mother group, and his own village.Marriage not in intra family ties rather in inter village ties. Residentail system is Virilocal, same as patrilocal involves a series of presentational obligations.
Veena Das- In north Indian kinship father son relationship precedes over husband wife relationship-on analysis of Punjabi kinship system she said- the natural sexual relationshp between husband and wife is subdued to socially established father son relationship glorifying patriarchy.
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South Indian Kinship system: entire south india, some parts of MH and Odisha- No distinction between patrilineal and matrilineal-
fathers brother is equivalent to mothers sisters husband- both their children, parallel cousins, so marriage among them.
Fathers sister group ~ mothers brother group =>mothers brother= fathers sisters husband.
Specific patrilineal kins are equated with specific matrilineal kins.
Love for younger and respect for elders cutting across generational principles- father ~ elder brother, mother ~ elder sister and younger brother ~ son, younger sister ~ daughter.
Cross cousins marriage allowable exogamy not exhaustive like north India.
Husband wife relationship is not subdued to father son relationship unlike north India.
Hostility of relationship between the laws driven by suspicion weak in south India.
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Central India Kinship system- Gujurat, Maharashtra, MP- mixture of elements from NI and SI.
Rajputs- marriage- on status of girlss family- no caste bar- girl of their choice.
Marthas-32 divisions- primary, secondary,tertiary divisions- marriage accordingly.
Kumbi of Gujurat- cant marry within one generations from fathers side and within 3 generations in mothers side.
Rajasthan- On Akshya Tritiya- massive marriage takes place- all age groups-relaxed norms.
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Eastern India Kinship system- Munda of Odisha, Manipuri of Manipur, Nagas, Kukis and Khasi.
Munda- 6 different class- associated with symbols like- bamboo,lizards, teak, crocodiles etc- each class many lineage group- son gets patrilineal grandfathers name-daughter gets patrilineal grandmothers name-divorce is common among them.
Khasi- youngest daughter inherits property from mother- status of man ~ status of woman in north India.
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These variations of kinship system speaks about differential residential system, property relations, status of men,women and children , entitlements based on gender-pluralistic society- unity is not about destruction of plurality rather respecting the plurality.
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Family and marriage in India
Study of family = debate on joint family vs nuclear family.
Sir Henry Maine- legal advisor to colonial govt- Indian joint family vs Roman and Greek joint family- based on texual material- based on 2 concepts- common property holdings and Absolute authority of Karta- corporate unit, everyone contributes differently but takes as per need- Its sustenance because of moral institutions and rituals for common dead ancestors.
GS Ghurye- Poduct of Indian culture, that glorified classical values- universal presence of joint family across caste, religion and region.
PN Prabhu-Individuals association with joint family is based on moralism-when moralism converts to individualism(tradition to modernity)- joint family converts to nuclear family.
Irawati karve- 3-4 generations people organically related to each other- common kitchen-common residence- common rituals- common obligations to kartas. Joint family= product of culture, so economic transformations cant change joint family system.
Yogendra Singh- Modernisation of Indian tradition in urban India- inter caste marriage- love marriage- nuclear family- guilt free sexuality in pre marital and post marital life. Industry-occupational mobility- women empowerment- structural break down of joint family system.
MN Srinivas and SC Dubey- caste and joint family relation- higher caste go for joint family- lower caste nuclear family- joint family is driven by economics logic rather than cultural logic.Contrast to Y Singh, joint family is not breaking down under influence of urban living.
Alan Rose- a study in bangalore- 70% of families- either structural jointness-functional jointness or both.
MS Gore- study on Agarwals of delhi- Mother son relationship precedes over husband wife relationship- family strong support base for its members in selection of occupation- financial assistance and selection of mates also.
TN Madan- residential separation- no break down of joint family- money order economy family jointness has always been enduring in India.
Family transformation in India is different from western transformations.
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Household dimensions of the family
AM Shah- bookhousehold dimension of indian family-fundamental question- joint household disintegrating or joint family- proportion of joint households more today as compare to past- reason- rising population- construction of houses costly- migration for employments etc- bigger households splitting into smaller households- but strong emotional ties though not staying together- joint household splitting not joint families.household study important.
Pauline Kolenda- after modernity joint households and joint families still exist- no conclusion unlike Marxist scholars.
Feminist view- whether joint family or nuclear family transformation is not affecting status of women- sexuality,DOL, reproduction based on patriarchy.
Classical sociologists-modernity- Household residencial place- family social istitution.
Rise of socialism and modernity- family funtions are being taken by play schools, old age homes, marriage bureaus, child care centers- family importance down- household importance up- scandinavian countries- household study is important.
From household study- can find out changes in indian society.
Global migration-Phillipines and India- married women- job outside- living in households with friends or alone.
In household- more importance to friendship to kinship- immense individual liberty- sexual freedom- limited or no liability towards other members- suitable for fragile or mobile population- Scandinavian sensus more importance to households than families.
Household study is taking place of family study, so as friendship study taking place of kinship study.
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Patriarchy, entitlements and sexual division of labour
Entitlement- form of individual right- culture- rules of law- by society
Modernist theory- various forms of entitlements- now extended to every section gender not a criteria. Feminists criticised this.
Talcolt parson- Industrialisation, urbanisation, migration- occupational mobility- empowerment of women and gender gap reduced.
Modernist theory in case of India- relationship between husband and wife prceeding parent child relationship- conjugal relationship more impo than obligation towards kinships- irrespective of gender every child inherits property from parents- selection of mates no longer familys responsibility- child birth is linked to economics and mutual agreement between spouse- modernity has broken down traditional form of marriage,hierarchical form of relationship.
Hinduism emphasis- sexual purity so child marriage- sexual experimentation outside mariage and premarital sex is hell- male child makes a woman complete- divorce is evil- widowhood is disaster- culture defines sexuality- reproduction- DOL,sexuality- Modernist contradicted- nuclear family- child birth by choice- individual control over sexuality.
Indira Jai Singh- All laws of entitlements based on patriarchy than gender equality- Hindu marriage act- divorce can be based on adultery- but have to be proved in court- (New act update ??)
Victims of rape has to recast the same experience again and again in order to get justice- inheritance rights over parents property to women recently made law- Legal laws based on patriarchy.
Tulsi Patel- Women consider it as sin to prohibit their husbands from sexuality- unwanted pregnancy- lose life during child birth- in bad healths also they accept to patriarchal convention- forgetting their entitlements- Wage payment women less than half compared to men-despite doing twice work than men in factories.
Family is a paradise in a hopeless world- where marriage, child birth, motherhood makes womans life complete.
Feminist movements is not rebellion against patriarchy rather asking for equality.
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8-Religion and Society
Religious communities in India
India birth place of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jianism and Sikhism- Religious diversity and religious tolerance established by law.
Diversity- religious assimilation- invaders- merchants- conquerors-traders and travellers.
Islam, Christian, Hindu, Sikhism, Buddists, Jains, Zoroastrians, Zewis.
Less inter religious marriages- Communal clashes.
Problems of Religious minorities
Plural Society transforming into a modern state.
Religious minorities- Linguistic minorities and ethnic minorities(tribe)- fear of loss of identity hence blockade- e.g. Delhi Punjabi living in Punjabi Bagh.
Gndhiji rise of hindu fundementalism- reactionary to conversion of hindus to christians by missionary activities- e.g the hierarchy system is still there- Kerala 3 types of christians- Syrian Christian- Latin Christians- New Christians (untouchables)- Christianity indianised.
Northeast- missionary activity- christianity- modern education e.g Mizoram- ethnic identity- conflict among them.
Constitution- article 25 to 28
Threat to christian minorities- right wing fundamentalism- organised terror.
Problems of Muslims in India
Around 12% of population- educated highly placed muslims very less- major educated migrate to western- middle class community is very less- poor section is large.
Communal disturbances- inequality and poverty and exploitation by priestly community i.e Mullas- foreign interference.
John stuart Mill the worst of the tyrannies is the tyranny of the majority- it doesnt mean majority deliberately tries to humiliate- i.e sensitive minority complex is a natural phenomena.
Role of politicians- Anti-social elements- bitter memories of past.
Why northbelt hindu revivalist groups are active there and bitter memories of partition-politics over communal clashes- parties tend to handle the situation a balanced manner- things goes out of control.
South India and MH- Communal clashes are less.
Theoritically-Islam no caste system- since they are converts- hence caste system.
Sachar Committee Report admin services less representation- 4% muslim students complete class x- 2% class XII- 1.2% graduation- on an avg 249 communal clashed in each year-women graduates are less than 1% among muslim population- at communal riots 80% muslims lose their property and sometimes life.
Deepak Mehta Minority psychosis- dharavi slum example-easy trigger.
Educational problems- school curriculum in hindi or english-less about islamic culture or society-less interesting for muslim students; islamic culture no encouragement for co-eduction; no special school for muslim girls in country as well; Many state govts promoting Madrasa- no promotion of secular education- religious education-little attention to rational knowledge for livelihood- huge gap between hindus and muslims-vote bank politics so major reforms for their education-policy of appeasement.
Zoya Hasan- backward ness of muslim women- religious orthodox leaders and state- uniform civil code which could have empowered muslim women was rejected- on the ground that hindu agenda enforecment on muslim women.
Randhir singh islamophobia- vertical division of society- religious fundementalism- questioning the secular credentials of India.
Govts steps
PMs 15 point programme- Anti-communal violence bill- Commission for Minorities- National minorities development and finance corporation(NMDFC)-Sachar committee-wakf board property protection bill.

9-Visions of Social changes in India
Idea of development planning and mixed eceonomy
Non capitalist-as no technoloy-no market-agri based economy.
Non socialist-as state would control market, production,distribution-might lead to autocratic rule.
Hence mixed economy- both state and private players- railways , shipping etc only govt- education,health,aviation etc both private and govt.
Sociologists analysis:
MS Gore- book developmental policies of India since independence-land reform system introduced in a haphazard manner-helped the landlords- dominant classes got the ownerships through benami transfer system in the name of cooperative farming.
Daniel Thorner- Capitalist agriculture in socialist India.
Cooperative movement- helped the dominat classes-was based on subsidy and tax rebate etc.
PC Joshi- book developmental strategies of India- gandhian vision of planning- use of appropriate technology- trusteeship and balance between nature and culture emphasizing on human happiness-than just materialistic prosperity.
1990s-LPG-not sustainable development model-profit centric without social responsibility- despite growth rampant poverty
Economic liberalisation- India became hunting ground for cheap labour- new capitalist agenda
Anita Minocha- young software professionals-health hazards- consumerist behaviour
Amartya Sen- Growth should be centred on health and education- mental and physical health-capacity to gather skill and fight discrimination- demand of justice when it is not extended to him
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Constitution, Law and Social Change
Preamble- We the people of India solemnly resolve...-does it include interests of all the people- constitution was brainchild of few intellectuals
In the west blacks and women got citizenship later-In India one day everyone got it-without knowing what is about-with FRs- so it is not being realised by the citizens
Equality,fraternity and liberty- was different from west-in west collective action-India some section was comftable with the British- We introduced EFL with thinking about ur capacity to implement it.
DPSP and FRS-basic direction in which a state should go
No improvements in education sector-basic emphasis is still on health and nuitrition and health.
Karl Marx- labour is the commodity sold in the capitalist market- children are not getting adequate attention- Kalahandi child selling case
Secularism- Can a state go for strong secular credentials when people are driven by strong religious consciousness- contest between what state wants and what people actually are
Andre Beteille- people are more driven by Manusmriti than constitution.
Bonded labour and child labour- banned- in reality practiced.
Vijayalakshmi- tells about how bonded labour is still prevalent even in Mteros like Delhi where housemaids coming Bihar-lack protection.
Adult franchsie and voting behaviour.
Upendra Bakshi and Ramachandra Guha- Liberty and freedom-fairy tale for the tribals-displacements-forest laws-mining etc.
Ramachandra Guha-On Narmada Bachao andolan-how the poor tribal people were waiting for 4 weeks to meet the head of the govt.
Constitutional provisions of freedom is based on class identity, ethnic identity and economic status.
Amartya Sen- Poverty makes an individual speechless, marginalised and therefore freedom as a constitutional provision is not being really enjoyed or exercise by a large majority of indian people.
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Education and social change
Functional paradigm and conflict paradigm-3rd 5 yr plan- Kothari commission on education
No thinkers study from note book
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10-Rural and Agrarian Transformation in India
Programmes of Rural Development
1.PMGSY- all weather roads
2.SGSY- shg and activity clusters
3.IAY- latrines and smokeless chulahs
4.MGNREGA- equal pay
5.NSAP- pension and annapurna scheme
6.CAPART- rural technology
7.DRDA- to see anti-poverty programmes
8.PURA
9.PMRDF
10.NRLM- Ajeevika-sustainable livelihood programme through finance support
11.Land reforms programmes
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Rural development- economic development as well as social trnsformation.- particpation of local people and resources- development from grassroot level rather development imposing on them.
Collective farming- social forestry- credit financing
Scholars found impediments in rural development programmes- strong caste consciouness- politisisation of rural development programmes- contradictions among villages during PRI elections.
DL Joshi- RD programmes started with a noble aim but failed to alter the hierarchical mindset of people resulting into premature collapse.
Development programme have intensified caste consolidation and caste conflict in village India.
SC-ST-Women couldnt benefit lack of awareness- most of them didnt have infra to take credit support.
In 8th 5 year plan- 68 different overlapping RD schemes- Integrated rural development programme(IRDP)-consolidation
Sociologists concerns -cultural character of people, gender involvement with work are the non-economic variables should also be cosidered.
Dream of rural development into reality.
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Green revolution
After 1965-HYV-irrigation-fertilizers-self sufficient in food grain production- social ethnic and political effect.
2 stages-first stage Punjab Haryana western UP- 2nd stage South and western India
Norman Borlaug- M S Swaminathan- wonder wheat Mexico-Punjab and Haryana 200 times production
Seed cooperatives-credit cooperatives-irrigation cooperatives- fertiliser cooperatives-upper class rich got the benefit-poor farmers old seed
In Karnataka- nexus between class caste power- lift irrigation at the centre of the field of rich farmer-obstruction walls- lands at higher height-no water-less production-disstress sale-dominant caste became dominant class.
Credit cooperatives- nexus between rich farmers-bribe-capitalist agriculture
P Vardhan- Poverty study is always based on basic needs and its fulfillment- not on economic sustainability of family- surplus income to invest in education,health etc- is green revolution creating employment or disguised unemployment.Effect of GR should studied in these lines.
GR-productivity increased-but rich poor devide widened-not hepful in rural development as it was one of its agenda.
Bhalla and Chadda- In Punjab and Haryana- 200 villages- the per acre difference in productivity between rich and poor is 200 times and the income difference is 16 times.
GR-distress migration from Bihar and eastern UP to Punjab and Haryana-exploited.
Lakshmi Menon and Utsa pattnaik- gender impact on green revolution- family income goes beyond consumption needs- it becomes status symbol- people become status conscious- women are withdrwan from labour- economy dominated by men- glorification of gender role of women- i.e men as producers and women should stay at home- importance of male child increased-people have money to take technological aid for selective abortion of female foetus- GR is one of the adverse gender gap in case of Punjab and Haryana.
GR and power and politics- developed political aspiration-political parties-rich farmers enter into politics- served interests of rich farmers through cooperatives.
GR and ethnic distinction Punjabi farmers and non punjabi farmers- poor farmers and rich farmers conflict.
Omen- positive side of GR- rural employment- addressed rural poverty- food deficit country to food surplus country.
Changes taking place in one sector leads to change in other sectors also- GR has influenced local politics-stratifcation-gender status-ethnicity- inter caste relationship- regional identities- migration.
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Changing modes of production in Indian Agriculture
Western-shift from feudalism to capitalist agri-India- change is not uniform-specific pockets of capitalism.
Agrarian transformation in India-depends on- geographical diversity-historical differences and contemporary variabilities.
Marxist Sociologists- no peasant mobilisation like China or Russia-class difference is the obstruction.
Gail Omvedt- strong nexus between caste and class- caste conflict is also class conflict.
Andre Beteilles book- Agrarian Social structure- no vertical mobility of peasants.
AR Desai- land reforms not successful- benami transfers in the name of cooperative farming- landlords holding tenants in unofficial contracts-so they cant take legal route- they dont enjoy their rights.
Colonial time-purely feudalistic
Orissa,Manipur,Assam-traditional technology-caste land holdings nexus is weak-semi feudal in nature.
MP, Bihar, UP, Bengal- some land reserved for commercial agri- contractual labourers rather than hired labourers- old land lord peasant system is still there- land reforms has least impact-semi capitalist mode of production.
Southern states- benefits of agriculture pocketed by rich farmers-low level tehnology use-lower caste people as agri labours-low intensive capitalist region.
Punajb and Haryana-tenacy system absent- hired labour- production as per market demands- farmers are highly unionised-caste and landownership relationship is absent- class consolidation high- intensive capitalist agriculture.
Multiple modes of production-60% are still landless- marginal farmers come from Dalit and Tribal origin- 16% agriculturists are from dominant castes- Jats,Yadavs,Bhomiars,Lingayats,Rajputs and Reddys etc.Rest from artisan caste-small holdings.
Agrarian transformation in India neither capitalist nor socialist-mixed of both-a complex phenomenon.
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Cooperatives
Reminder to the international community that economic viability and social responsibility is possible at the same time.
1904-cooperative societies act- started Now-all over the country
Cooperative credit system-largest in the world-have given more credit than commercial banks
Village cooperative societies- strategic input in agricultural sector- consumer society meets their consumption at concessional rates- coopratives help in building store houses-godowns and cold storages,irrigation and rural roads etc
Sugra cooperatives-fertiliser cooperatives-national diary development board- cooperative milk marketing board- early 1970s Operation flood-diary processing plants-collection stations-natinal milk transportation grid.
After the insurance act-cooperatives are in insurance sector as well.
Indian farmers fertilizers cooperatives-teamed up with japans cooperatives-internal in nature. the central govt enacted the Multi State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002 which provided for democratic and autonomous working of the Cooperatives.
Why coopeartives important- for the poor-unskilled-illiterate-institution of mutual help and sharing- softens the social conflict and reduces the social divisions- reduces the bureaucratics evils-overcomes the huddles of agri development- craetes conducive environment for small scale industries.
Why growth is slow:
Govts interference
Manipulations and mismanagement-in elections for the top posts
Lack of awareness
Restricted coverage
Functional weakness-lack of trained personnel-efficient people dont join them.
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Poverty Allieviation programme
Refer notes-2 page-22
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Community development Programme
Refer notes-2 page-19
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Problems of Rural labour
Agricultural labour- tillage of soil, production, cultivation,growing, harvesting.
Bonded labour-take cash/kind loan from land lords,then works for him
Labourer in forestry- timbering etc
Para Agriculture-allied activities,post harvest processing,taking products to market etc
Plantation labour-cultivation and production of plantations of tea,coffee,sugarcane,coconut,groundnut etc
Rural labour in allied activities- raising livestock, diary farming, bees and poultry grazing etc
Rural labour other work- milkman, blacksmith, carpenter,barber,washerman etc
Self employed person- self employed in an occupation-small shop owner etc
Agricultural is seasonal and different variations- so difficult to draw a line between agricultural and non agricultural labourers
Fifty per cent of the agricultural labour households- landless and have no asset base- The landless labourers are suffering from a compounded problem of unemployment-low and uncertain income-nutritional deficiencies- indebtedness-under employment- illiteracy- ignorance-big size of the family may primarily be accounted for the high degree of poverty among rural labourers.
uncertainty of employment in lean seasons- employed on day to day basis wihtout any contract- one-fifth of the total number of agricultural labours is employed on annual terms they work as domestic servants.
wide illiteracy existing among them and their inferior social conditions add to their weak bargaining state.
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Bonded labour
Read from note book-2 page no-28
Utsa pattnaik and Sashi kumar
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Migration
In search of better life or sometimes through compulsion.distance, direction and duration of migration. Reasons-economic,social and political. Internal migration and international migration.
e.g The Jews migrated from Germany to other parts of the world to avoid persecution under Hitlers Nazist regime. Partition of British India.
Push factors and pull factors.
Ashish Bose for instance explains Migration in India from rural to Urban from a demographic perspective. perspective. The push factors which operate in places of origin, in this case the rural areas, is lack of resources, unemployment, overpopulation, drought or floods or such other natural calamities, essentially all such factors which makes a decent living standards impossible. The pull factors of cities are many- employment opportunities, entertainment , education facilities, trade centres, institutional set ups, availability of opportunities , secular environment etc. Ashish Bose, argues that the push and pull factors should be interpreted in overall demographic contexts. Under conditions of high natural increase in population, not only in rural areas but in the urban areas as well (as a result of high urban birth rates and rapidly declining death rates), the push factor operates He calls it as push back factor.
Meenakshi Thapan in her recent book Transnational Migration and Politics of Identity, argues that any theory on migrationfor a holitstic perspectivemust account for it in terms of race, religion, nationality and on gender, which much of early literature on migration is silent. She asserts that structural ramifications of womens migration extend beyond the lives of migrant women themselves, insofar as the labour of such women is an important factor in shaping gender relations found in societies of both , the immigrants and their hosts, thereby suggesting new ways of looking at issues such as gender equality, household division of labour and at the state policies regarding welfare positions.
Cyclic or circulatory migration- temporary change of place not migration-tourism and communication.
Internal and external- lots of planning for migration such as for software enginners.
Primitive migration-Random unplanned migration
Forced migration- natural disasters,exodus of Afganisthanis to Pakistan.
Seasonal and periodic- nomadic people living on the margins of deserts.
W.B. Fisher noted that periodic migrations are sometimes tempted to settle permanently in their place of work. However, initially their intentions were to remain there only temporarily
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Rural-rural- based on agri or marriage in north India
Rural-urban- In rural areas the burgeoning poverty, meagre employment opportunities, low and uncertain/irregular wages, lack of education and health facilities are the main push factors. Such unguided migration to the city leads to the problems of housing in the towns/cities. For such migrants, habitat changes, but not the quality of life. Clearly, this kind of migration is fraught with hazards especially for women, who thereby expose themselves to the possibility of sexual exploitation and violence.
As migrants, these workers then do not have access to any of the public facilities for health care, since they are not resident in that area. They cannot buy their food requirements from the ration shops since they do not have ration cards valid for that place. If they have come with small children, they are unable to place them in local government schools, or even to access the local anganwadi for their legally recognised requirements. They are ignored by public schemes and programmes, including those related to such public health issues as immunisation drives. And then there are the other sins of public omission and commission that directly affect such migrants. There are no public help centres, no information offices, no complaint cells where they can go to redress any grievances, whether these relate to non-payment of wages or terrible conditions of work or physical exploitation and violence. Rather, local officialdom in the destination typically views migrants as vagrants or nuisances, takes aggressive attitudes towards them and becomes another source of tribulation for the migrants.
Urban-rural- reverse flow-the problems of housing due to over-congestion of cities and the resultant problems of environmental pollution and poor health. This often forces the migrants to return to their native villages. In India many of the retired persons tend to settle in their native villages or small towns where they own property or acquire it later.
Urban-urban- People move out from one urban place to the other. The motive is to find jobs to improve their economic status. It is a common feature that large cities attract people from small towns in their neighbourhood. This is especially true in the case of skilled workers. This practice is known as step-wise migration. The first step is to move out from a village to a small town; the second step is to move out from a small town to a large city. Urban to urban migration is due to multiple factors, economic as well as socio-cultural. It is the main channel of labour supply to the fast growing city.
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Factors of migration
Primarily economic, such as high income, better employment opportunities, and jobs in the informal sector, and the hope for a better quality of life. Marriages, social insecurity, civil strife and inter-ethnic conflicts are important social factors, which influence the decision to migrate. Extra-ordinary episodes in history, such as war and terrorism also lead to migration.
Economic factors- GR in Punjab and Haryana labour demand migration from Bihar and eastern UP
Social factors- marriage-better off people tend to migrate.
Demographic factor- age of the migrant is an important demographic factor. Young people have a far greater desire to out-migrate than the elderly people. A high rate of natural increase of population provides the basis for out-migration. Large-scale out-migration from the thickly populated parts of Bihar and east Uttar Pradesh is largely due to the diminishing land resources in the native villages.
Impact of Migration
Migration is not a simple phenomenon. It brings about changes in the population composition in the home villages as well as in the regions of destination. It helps the migrants and their families to achieve a certain level of self-sufficiency and a better quality of life in the regions/countries of destination. The demographic scene changes drastically leading to the synthesis of culture, language, quality of life, and the influx of knowledge.
The immigrants adapt themselves to the conditions prevailing in the countries of destination. Migration brings about a cultural change and its ramifications are too many. Even the place names are carried to the regions of destination. E.g New England (USA)
Human desire to preserve their memories of the places they have left behind. The Muslims who migrated to Pakistan after the partition of British India gave the names of their hometowns in India to the places of their settlement in Pakistan particularly, the Province of Sind.
It has been suggested that the regions of destination generally benefit, while the regions of origin suffer. When the educationally qualified personnel move out their migration is often referred to as brain drain. This kind of migration is likely to play a major role in terms of economic development of the countries of destination. However, the regions of origin also benefit from the remittances of money by the migrants.
Inter-ethnic marriages often take place in the countries of destination. A new class of NRIs (non-resident Indians) has emerged. They not only remit money back home but also bring new cultural influences with them.
The immigrants became a source of tension leading to inter-ethnic clashes and civil strife.
An interesting feature is that about 75 per cent of the total intrastate migrants are females. This shows that the bulk of the female migration in India is related to marriage.
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11-Industrialisation and Urbanisation in India
Growth of urban settlemensts in India
In simple words=Urbanisation=population growth of the cities and towns.
Sociologically=it means spreading urban way of life to the country side.
In the present times spread of industrialisation has gave momentum to the urbanisation process,especially in the third world countries.
Rapid growth of urban population= in social science a controversial term called over urbanisation.

Urbanisation community living life style tends to become= impersonal, formal, goal oriented, contractual and transitory.

Transformation of ecocnomic activities from agricultural to non agricultural= more employment in secondary and tertiary sector=division of labour and specialisation of work.

Process of urbanisation = breakdown in the functioning of traditional institutions and patterns of behaviour and of social control.

Sometimes the traditional forms continue to exist but change and evolve at the face of urbanisation.

Yogendra Singh- many new roles, often rational and modern in orientation, are added on to the traditional institutional forms. In India, the traditional institutions like caste, joint family and neighbourhood, etc., offer ample evidence of such continuity and change in cities.

Urban growth coupled with industrialisation = rural urban migration= tend to overflow with rural migrants = such migrations accelerate the pace of urbanisation.Excessive population pressure on the public utilities, cities suffer problems of crime, slums, unemployment, urban poverty, pollution, congestion, ill health and other deviant social activities.

Urbanisation has been viewed as an important force of social change. In India, this process has, on the one hand, meant economic growth, political change, new values and new attitudes. It reflects also the elements of continuity between rural and urban social structures.
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Social Cultural Character of Urbanisation

Cities of India have achieved heterogeneous character in terms of ethnicity, caste, race, class and culture. Coexistence of different cultures. Cultural pluralism.

Studies show that though various ethnic and/or caste groups have adjusted themselves with each other in the city, they have also tried to maintain their traditional identity.

N.K. Bose points out that the migrants tend to cluster around people with whom they have linguistic, local, regional, caste and ethnic ties.

A study by Jagannathan and Haldar on the pavement-dwellers in Calcutta shows that they retain close ties with kinship and caste groups for socializing and transmitting or receiving information from the village.

Social stratification has taken a new form in the urban society. It is assumed that with urbanisation caste transforms itself into class in the urban areas. But caste systems do exist in the cities though with significant organizational differences.

Marriage and family- In the urban areas caste norms have been flexible with regard to the selection of mates. There have been increasing opportunities for the free mixing of young men and women. Again the voluntary associations have encouraged inter-caste marriages. As a result there have been more inter-caste and inter-religious marriage in the urban areas than earlier.
Though it has been pointed out that joint families are breaking down in the urban areas.

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Problems of Urban Areas

unplanned urbanisation-slums-hygiene-tansport-health-pollution-environmental degradation-antisocial elements-migration- unsufficient water suppy- anadequate housing.

Urbanisation along with westernisation and modernisation=rapid social change both in rural and urban areas.

MN Srinivas pointed out that urbanisation in southern India has a caste component and that, it was the Brahmin who first left the village for the towns and took advantage of western education and modern professions. At the same time as they retained their ancestral lands they continued to be at the top of the rural socio-economic hierarchy. Again, in the urban areas they had a near monopoly of all non-manual posts.

As a result of migration there has been a flow of urban money into the rural areas. Emigrants regularly send money to their native villages. Such money facilitates the dependants to clear off loans, build houses and educate children.

Many cultural traits have emerged in rural areas from urban areas dress,food,ideas,values,thoughts,ideologies etc-due to increase in communication, radio, television, newspaper, computer etc.

The differing viewpoints held by various sociologist wherein one expects urbanisation as a leading force pushing Indian society towards modernisation thereby transforming caste into class, while on the other hand sociologists like MN Srinivas points out that it is transforming caste old into caste new rather than changing caste into class, so it is better to be called westernisation than modernisation.
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Slums and deprivations in urban areas


Slum population accounts for a substantial share of urban population in all types of cities in India. Even a planned city like Chandigarh has not escaped slums.

Slums-substandard housing-over crowding-lack of electrification-ventilation-sanitaion-roads-drinking water facilities- breeding ground for diseases-anti social elements-poverty-juvenile delinquency-gambling.
The National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, has recorded that the emergence of slums is
essentially the product of three forces:

1. Greater potential for employment, which attracts rural people;

2. incapacity to meet the rising demand for housing

3. The urban policy doesnt allow the poor to buy land.
Characteristics of Slums:
-Poorly designed housing on unauthorised land.

-Over-crowding and congestion.

-Lack of public utilities and facilities, such as, drainage, sanitation, water taps, electric light,
health centres, common latrines and public parks, etc

- high incidence of deviant behaviour such as crime, juvenile delinquency, prostitution, drug use,
beggary, illegitimacy, illicit distilling of liquor, gambling and other social evils are associated with
slum areas. It does not mean that all those residing in slums are necessarily associated with
such deviant behaviour. The slum areas, socially and physically provide greater opportunity for
such kinds of deviant behaviour.

- Though the slum-dwellers are functionally integrated to the city life. These areas are looked down upon and considered inferior. Such a reaction from the larger community renders slums into social isolation, detached from the city as a whole.

- People living in slums are not always poor and marginalised. Looking at the growing cost of urban land, some of the traders and land mafias encroach over the land in slums and rent it out. They wait till the land gets authorised, which usually happens just before the election. Therefore slum operates as a big source of profit for them.

- People living in particular slum largely come from one area therefore they addresse to
each other in primary kinship terms and follow traditional form of rituals. Therefore slums are
evolving into mini cultural Centre.

MSA Rao advocate that slums are not the centres of cultural poverty rather they are centres of cultural prosperity. People living in slums glorify, practice and promote their culture and considered outsiders as suffering from cultural poverty.

MS Gore conceded that slums and urban growth are complementary to each other because for the construction of roads, buildings migrant workers come from different pockets of the country. They offer their service at a cheaper rate to the mainstream occupation. He further said that slum provides emotional comfort to people and therefore slum is the lifeline of urbanity, it's
the sweet spot on the beautiful face of urban India.

Marxist sociologist point out that urban centres develop out of the sweat and blood of
poor people for which they do not get any benefit. They further consider that most of the people
living in slums are accused of crime, drug paddling and other kinds of criminal activities. Slums are
used as a source of cheap labour by the urban upper and middle class and therefore growth of slum is talking about exploitation between haves and have-nots in modern society.

GS Ghurye- in his book Sociology of slums slums are the other cultures that doesnt carry commonalities with Sanskritik Hindu culture. Therefore protest movements coming out from the slum is questioning to the unity and integrity of the Indian society.

In conclusion it can be said that slums is not a challenge to urban planners, rather it is an area of sociological research that takes into consideration tha factors like-1. Slums and social change
2. functions and dysfunctions of slums
3. slums and deviance
Informal Sector

Informal sector=informal economy= that part of an economy that is not taxed, monitored by any form of government, or included in any gross national product (GNP). In India around 70% of the potential working population earn their living in the informal sector. Agricultural workers constitute by far the largest segment of workers in the unorganized sector.

The informal /unorganised sector in India continues to remain bigger than the organised sector in many key respects in spite of the large control over resources and social economic power enjoy it by the organised sector.

Despite its large, substantial place in economy, the unorganised sector is a relatively neglected sector in the arena of public policy support and academic discourse.

Features of Informal sector:-

1. Low level of organisation, less than 10 employess, sometimes immediate family memebers

2. Heterogeneity in activities

3. Easy entry and exit than the formal sector

4. Usually low capital investment, no difference between capital and labour

5. Labour intensive job, low level skills, workers learn on the job

6. Emplyoee and employer relationship is informal and unwritten with little and no rights

7. Due to their isolation and invisibility, workers in the informal sector are often largely unaware of their rights, cant organise them and have little negotiating power

Categories of informal sector:-
Based on occupation- Small and marginal farmers, landless agricultural labourers, share croppers,
fishermen, those engaged in animal husbandry, in beedi rolling, labelling and packing, building and
construction, collection of raw hides and skins, handlooms weaving in rural areas, brick kilns and stone quarries, saw mills, oil mills, et cetera.

Based upon nature of employment: attached agricultural labourers, bonded labourers, migrant
workers, contract and casual labourers et cetera.

Specifically distressed categories: scavengers, carriers of head loads, drivers of animal driven
vehicles, loaders, unoaders et cetera.

Service categories: midwives, domestic workers, barbers, vegetable and fruit vendor is,
newspaper vendor's et cetera.

Problems of informal sector:-

1. Rural agricultural labour poor security of tenure- low income-inadequate diversification of economic activities in rural areas- they are dispersed,unorganised and generally have poor bargaining power- seasonal work,so they migarte to urban centres for construction works in off seasons.

2. Circumstances force them to borrow either for consumption purposes or to meet social obligaions like marriage et cetera, from private sources, endup in bonded labour in many cases.

3. The issues and problems of home based workers are very complex because of the absence
of any direct master-servant or employer-employee relationship between the home worker and the person or organization for whom he works. The relationship being ambiguous and indefinite, the home worker is subjected to exploitation in various forms.
In India, there is no authentic data on home based workers. Official data sources such as Census of India, do not recognize these workers as an independent category but have included them in the broad category of those working in house-hold Industries. Home based workers are
not visible in national statistics. However, it has been estimated that over 3 crore workers in the
country are home based workers. E.g beedi rolling, handloom weaving, rural artisans and craft persons, agarbatti makers, zari workers, papad makers, cobblers, lady tailors, carpenters, etc.

One of the major features of construction industry is that it is prone to risks of accidents. Majority goes unreported.

sexual exploitation of women migrant workers;
very less amount of money paid in the form of wage;
most of the migrant workers in the informal sector live in slums with poor sanitation leading
to health hazard.

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Social security measures taken by government for workers in unorganised sector

'Swavalamban scheme- National pension scheme for unorganised scheme
1.centrally funded social assistance programs-SGSY, National social assistance scheme, employment assurance scheme, family benefits and maternity benefits,
2.social insurance scheme-Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana
3.social assistance through welfare funds of Central and State governments
4. public initiatives

Several public institutions and agencies are also imparting various kinds of social security
benefits to the selected group of workers, Among these Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) has made significant achievement in promoting social security through the formation of cooperatives.

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Child Labour in India

worst forms of child labor which includes Child Slavery, Child prostitution, Child Trafficking, Child Soldiers. Official figure of child laborers world wide is 13 million. But the actual number is much higher.Kenya,Somalia,Nigeria,Bangladesh,Pakistan,India.

India has the dubious distinction of being the nation with the largest number of child laborers in the world.

They do not go to school; more than half of them are unable to learn the barest skills of literacy. Poverty is one of the main reasons behind this phenomenon.

The unrelenting poverty forces the parents to push their young children in all forms of hazardous occupations. In India the emergence of child labor is also because of unsustainable systems of landholding in agricultural areas and caste system in the rural areas.

The debt that binds them to their employer is incurred not by the children themselves but by their parent.

The arrangements between the parents and contracting agents are usually informal and unwritten. The number of years required to pay off such a loan is indeterminate. The lower castes such as Dalits and tribal make them vulnerable groups for exploitation.

Migration to cities- On arrival in overcrowded cities the disintegration of family units takes place through alcoholism, unemployment or disillusionment of better life etc. The girls are forced to work as sex -workers or beggars. A large number of girls end up working as domestic workers on low wages and unhealthy living conditions.

Sometimes children are abandoned by their parents or sold to factory owners. Low wages and low bargaining power. They use all means to lure the parents into giving their children on pretext of providing education and good life.

In the unorganized sector child labor is paid by piece-by-piece rates that result in even longer hours for very low pay.

The attitudes of parents also contribute to child labor; some parents feel that children should work in order to develop skills useful in the job market, instead of taking advantage of a formal education.

After RTE-2009, no child can work in wage based employment below the age of 14.

The Bonded Labour System Act of 1976 fulfills the Indian Constitution's directive of ending forced labour.

There are laws governing the use of migrant labour and contract labour.

The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation law) of 1986 designates a child as a person who has
completed their 14th year of age. In light of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, the Bill seeks to prohibit employment of children below 14 years in all occupations except where the child helps his family after school hours.


Child labour (prohibition and regulation amendment Bill ) 2012-new term adolescent-14 to 18- no hazardous industry work.The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Working Class, Structure, Growth Class mobilisation



The question who and what is working class is not an easy one to answer. There is a problem of where to draw the line. The difference further extends in terms of skill, sex, age, income and caste.

In the Marxian scheme, the capitalist society is characterised by two principal classes:
bourgeoisie and proletariat. Bourgeoisie owns the means of production and proletariat sell their labour for wages in order to live.

India has a multi-structural economy where a number of pre-capitalist relations of production co-exist with capitalist relations of production.

Growth of working class in India

The modern working class came into being with the rise of capitalist mode of production. This mode of production brought with it the factory type of industry. Conversely, without a factory industry there can be no working class but only working people.

Formative period= British destroyed the artsan and handloom industry without replacing them with modern factory system. After the introduction of Railways and sporadic growth of some industries, the workers who had lost their livelihoods, joined as disstressed labourers.

Emergence of working class=With the growth of modern industries= similar experience and shared interests = formation of working class in the later half of the 19th century.

Hence, the consciousness of being exploited by the capitalists/ owners of factories was evident as
early as 1888, when workers of Shyamnagar Jute Mill assaulted the manager.That is, the reactions
against the exploitation in early phases were marked by riots, affrays, assaults and physical violence.

Consolidation of working class= end of 19th century and beginning of 20th century= organised national movements and consolidation of the working class.

This political development worked as a favorable condition for the Indian working class too for moving ahead with its economic struggles and raising them to a higher pitch. These struggles led to the laying of the foundation of the first trade unions of the country.

Nature and structure of working class today:
multi-structural economy and effects of primordial affiliations, a variety of forms of the working class exists in India.

First, those workers who are permanent employees of the large factory sector and get family wage . (By family wage it is meant that the wage of the worker should be sufficient to maintain not only the individual but also the workers family).

Second, there is a large and preponderant section of the working class that does not get a family wage.This includes workers in the older industries like cotton and jute textiles, sugar and paper.

Third, there is a section of the working class at the bottom of the wage scale the mass of contract and sometimes casual labourers in industry, including construction, brick making and other casual workers.

Fourth, below all these lie a reserve army of labour, who work in petty commodities production in petty trading, ranging from hawking to rag-picking. They are generally engaged in the informal sector and carry on for the want of sufficient survival wage.

Better paid labour has also much greater job security. However the workers on the lower end of the
wage scale have not only job security but also considerable extra-economic coercion and personal
bondage which leads to lack of civil rights. Similarly, working conditions for the low paid workers are
uniformly worse than for high paid workers. So, in the same plant or site there is a clear difference
in the safety measures for the two groups of workers. The situation worsens further with regard to
women workers.




Social back ground of Indian working class

This study points out that in higher income jobs upper castes dominate whereas Dalits/adivasis have preponderance in low wage jobs.

The middle castes are concentrated in middle to bottom ranges. Even in public sector, the representation of backward castes, schedule castes and tribes is not up to their proportion in the
population.

Moreover, it seems that caste based division of labour is followed in the class III and IV jobs in government and public sector enterprises. So the jobs of sweepers are reserved for dalits and
adivasis. In coal mines, hard physical labour of loading and pushing the coal tubs is done by dalits and advasis. In steel plants the production work in the intense heat of coke oven and blast furnace is
mainly done by advasis and dalits. This is because of pre labour market characteristic such as
education and land holding.

The depressed conditions of adivasis and dalits helps in ensuring a supply of labour, who can be made to work at the mere subsistence level . Hence, caste on one hand plays a role in keeping the lower sections of the society in the lower strata of the working class, on the other hand, the upper caste get a privilege in the labour market. Further, caste is not only a matter of marriage and to an extent residence, but more so a continuing pool of social relation for the supply of various kinds of labour for the capitalist mode of production.

Working classis a complex, contradictory and constantly changing entity. The concept of classconsciousness, is very slippery with regard to the working class.
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12-Politics and Society
Nation
A nation a group of people who share-common-language-culture-ethnicity-history etc. But in this definition a nations physical borders is not considered. It can also be seen as people of common territory and government irrespective of their ethnicity. In case of international relation any sovereign nation is considered as a nation.
Nationalism-a political ideology-Modernist view, it is the nationalism who creates national identity. Nationalism-a collective identity- people must be autonomous, united to express a single national culture.
Nationalism-Sometimes reactionary- calling for a return to the national past-sometimes for the expulsion of foreigners.
Nationalism-sometimes revolutionary- calling for an establishment of an independent state as a homeland for an ethnic underclass.
The concept of nation developed in the West.Nationalism got momentum as an ideology during the freedom struggle.
Nationalism is needed for political discourse-secular credentials.
Why secularism-when politicians take oath on the name of god-presence of god everywhere in public life.
Rise of cultural consciousness is contesting with secular ideology. Why religion and culture is used in the name of natinalism.Freedom struggle-nationalism out of religion and culture. Bankim Chandra said that nationalism is not a political agenda but the moral duty of the people born in this particular territory to protect their motherland.
After freedom struggle we changed attention from nationalist state to inclusive, democratic, socialist and pluralistic nation.
Ambedkar was critical of Gandhis philosophy of cultural nationalism. During 1930s secessionist movement was started in South India as a fear that after Independence Aryan culture will be imposed on them thereby questioning their identity. They considered Hinduism as an aggressive ideology.
Amartya Sen tells that nationalism is a form of religious revivalism that is attacking to individual freedom, secular character of the country, accelerating communal tension and putting the development programmes and welfare measures at the backseat.
TN Madan considered at cultural revivalism and glorification of communal politics is a natural phenomenon in a society like India. In India people are so committed to culture in terms of language, speech, food, marriage and rituals that bringing religion back to public sphere is never difficult.
Andre Beteille considered that search for nationalism is not relevant to contemporary times when illiteracy, deprivation, poverty, gender issue are so greatly affecting to the rise of India as a pluralistic secular state.
DL Joshi consider that nationalism, its evolution, growth and decline must be studied in the context of time. He indicates that glorification of nationalism in contemporary times can be attributed to the following factors: cultural nationalism perceived as a mechanism to unify people in past-political parties are trying to evoke cultural consciousness to get maximum political support. Problems like cross-border terrorism manifest hostility between India and Pakistan is being used as a pretext for the glorification of Hindu revivalism that emphasises on the rise of strong state that can put a stop on the nuisance of hostile neighbours.
India was never a unified nation because different communities and culture located at different regions were speaking different languages, practising different culture, exhibiting the character of diversity. Therefore nationalism was construed agenda during freedom struggle in India. Bringing back the spirit of nationalism today can only develop suspicion, hatred and conflict among various sections of society to split Indian to different pieces.
Ramchandra Guha indicates that people of India go for differential nationalism rejecting outrightly cultural nationalism and few of these differential nationalism are cricket nationalism, Kargil nationalism, Nationalism to sympathise with tsunami victims etc which needs to be appreciated.
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Democracy
Democracy is a form of government in which all people have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. It can also encompass social, economic and cultural conditions that enable the free and equal practice of political self-determination. Democracy is not only a political system but an ideal, an aspiration to lead a dignified life.
Equality and freedom have both been identified as important characteristics of democracy since ancient times. All citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes.e.g in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight.
Fair competitive elections- freedom of expression and press- capacity of individuals to participate freely and fully in the life of their society.
India-largest democracy-equality-liberty-fraternity-justice-Preamble-fundamental right and DPSPs-spirit of democracy.
Democracy in theory not in practice- There is inequality in every sphere- social, economic and political. Illiteracy is the main cause of inequality-vote bank politics-power abuse-nepotism-corruption-poor gets poorer-criminal politicians etc
Progressed in many aspects- Green revolution-food grains sufficient-food security bill-polio eradication etc-Nota-evm-vibrant press-pressure groups-civil soicety activism-judiciary activism.
Democracy demands from the common man- rational conduct- intelligent understanding of public affair- unselfish devotion to public interest and political awareness.
In a democracy where civil society is stronger, people are enjoying their citizenship right to the fullest. When we talk about state and citizenship we cannot ignore the role of civil society. The whole concept of civil society evolved from Western specifically coffee-house in Britain, Salons in France and Table Groups in Germany which are considered as the roots of civil society. At these places different issues were discussed leading to a particular public opinion which was then published in newspapers, magazines etc. After 1990s civil society has become very strong in India and have taken upon itself various issues concerning people like corruption, environment, women issues, education, child labour etc.
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Citizenship
A citizen is one who participates in the process of government. In a democratic society, there must be a two-way traffic between the citizens and the government.
Person who is ruled by laws but who has no political rights is not a citizen.
A citizen must have economic rights, political rights and social rights.
Social citizenship: it gives an individual right to equality on the basis of gender, caste, religion, language.
Political citizenship : it is right to people to register protest, freedom of speech and expression, right to vote.
India is a democratic country but people are not enjoying democratic rights because of inequalities e.g. rural population.
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Political Parties
A political organisation which influences policy making, people of a political party share same ideas,as to how the country will be governed. They hold political office to enact new laws and to alter old laws.
In case of India even if political parties are going for coalition they are not sharing common ideology and so they remain divided and hence lack stability.
First political party which evolved out of mass movement i.e. Indian freedom struggle was Congress. People from every walk of life were party to freedom struggle and therefore Congress had the advantage of incorporating them all within its ambit and enjoy absolute power for almost 3 decades.
During 1970s green revolution resulted into success and prosperity which led to increasing political aspiration among people thereby we could see the emergence of new political parties. 1985 onwards we see a seachange in party system in India. For the first time Congress took support from regional parties to constitute government under PV Narasimha Rao. Hence regional party got momentum. This led to the emergence of politics of coalition.
Coalition politics has resulted into horse trading and affecting political ideology reducing Indianpolitics into skeletal democracy. Rajni Kothari contradicting to the above statement indicates that with centralised party system, regional interest and local interests were not glorified. As a result political aspiration of many were getting sidelined. The growth of small political parties and their growing significance in contemporary politics in India is making Indian politics Federal in character leading to inclusive governance.
Multi-party system has made Indian politics inclusive and people centric. It is evident from the fact that forgetting their ideology, coalition partners are introducing policies like National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, housing schemes, roadways programme to prove that government is not only servicing but working as functional government to fulfill the needs and aspirations of the people. Therefore neither regional party nor coalition government can be considered as failure of democracy because they are making Indian society a pluralistic democracy.
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Pressure groups
Pressure group=interest group=lobby group=protest group=does not put up candidates for election= but seeks to influence government policy or legislation.
if necessary, in their interest, they may support one political party or the other, and try to influence legislation and executive decisions by using various methods of exercising pressure on the government of the day.
When a group carries on its function of pressurising members of the legislature by contacting them in the parliamentary galleries, the practice is known as lobbying. West lobbying vs indian lobbying.
Without seeking government jobs or entering the legislatures, the interest and pressure groups do play a vital role in contemporary democracies in the decision-making process.
Types of pressure groups-
Institutional Interest Groups- formally organised which consist ofprofessional employed persons bureaucrats-army personnel etc.
Associational Interest Groups-organised, specialist groups-trade unions-business groups-FICCI-CII-Indian chambers of commerce.
Anomic interest group-groups have individual self-representation- These groups are formed in the shape of movement, demonstrations ,proceedings, signature campaigns, street corner meetings etc.
Non-Associational Interest Groups: These are the kinship and lineage groups having ethnic, regional, status and caste groups.
Nature of pressure groups in India-
Business groups- FICCI, CII-from the time before independence-during pre budget period- govt takes inputs from theses groups
Trade unions- from pre independence time- work through weapons of strike etc.
Peasant organisations- abolition of zamindari system- implemenation of panchayati raj system- land reform s measures-green revolution. All india kisan sabha 1936. All india kisan congress. Akhila bharatiya kisan sangh. Bharatiya kisan party etc.
Student organisations- all bengal student associaltion 1928- all india student federation 1936- national students union of India NSUI Student federation of India SFI- Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthhy Parishsd ABVP-sudent groups associated with political parties.
Community associations- based on religion, class and region etc. Vishwa Hindu Parishad, Northern and Southern India christian conference.
Caste pressure groups- caste panchayats-caste based politics-SC federation,backward caste federation etc.
Mass Media- print media, electronic media and social media exterting pressure on government.
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Social and Political elites
An elite is a group of relatively small size, that is dominant within a large society, having a privileged status. Political elite concept developed in the United States, after the Second World War. Pareto and Mosca are the chief exponents of this concepts.
Political elites in India-
Political elites in India before independence came from upper-middle class. These leaders were usually foreign educated and at high and good contacts. They were intellectuals but did not like to mix with the common man whom they considered as low person with no power of understanding-urban base- no mass contact.
After constitution- equality and equal access for all for political power- Some of the elites now have begun to emerge from the rural areas and even from middle and lower middle classes- mass appeal among their caste and region people. By and large Indian political elite still comes from upper-middle class.
Green revolution has produced new elite group.
In India now the people belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled Tribes and other backward classes who could never think of becoming political elite, have joined the high rank of political elite. Some of them hold great power and position and also high prestige, therefore now in India political power belong to all sections of society which has diluted the role and number of political elites giving Indian democracy wide coverage.
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Regionalism
Region refers to a geographic territory where one lives. It is not just the love for region but the sentiments attached with the territory, love for cultural aspects of that particular region, love for custom and values of that region.
Classical theory- regionalism and nationalism are engaged in dialectics with each other- Regional consciousness is fast entering into subnational consciousness which is leading to separatist tendencies paving the way for the division of India.
The issues like poverty, unemployment etc have taken a back seat and regionalism is glorified which further encourages inequality. In order to understand regionalism today we have to understand its roots. In India we have 6000 dialects, 500 different languages out of which only few languages are recognised i.e. enjoy official status.
During 1950s reconstruction of Indian State on the basis of language sowed the seeds for regional aspirations which is prevalent even today. In a region we find people speaking different dialects and when people find out that language is the main criteria for recognition of state (organisation of state on linguistic basis) people transform their dialects into language. people having regional consciousness find no problem for demanding state.The contemporary regional movement is the result of two reasons i.e. overdevelopment in some areas and underdevelopment in other areas.
In North East India there is no single criteria on the basis of which one can create a state because every tribe is different from the other which creates big problem for government and so the concept of union territories come into play.
But there is a contrasting viewpoint which has been put forward by various sociologist who do not consider regionalism as divisive force. Rajni Kothari believes that regional movement is a search for political aspirations that is making Indian democracy competent and strong.
Partho Chatterjee indicates that regionalism is a challenge to nationalism. During the early phase of Indian nationalism regionalism became an important instrument for national aspirations but in contemporary context , questions like development, underdevelopment, empowerment and powerlessness, relative deprivation are the guiding force behind regionalism.
Small is not always beautiful is evident from growing poverty in case of Chhattisgarh as compared to minimum poverty in Punjab. A small state cannot guarantee happiness. It is evident from our current position where failure of the state to address the deprivation of the people has given way to acceleration of naxalite movement. In the whole of North East India people are fighting on the basis of ethnic identity, sub ethnic identity and sub sub ethnic identity which brings forward the conclusion that small states are not always better governed and there is no end to peoples aspirations for power.
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Decentralisation of Power
It is not just an institution borrowed from West but an experience which every section of society in their everyday life goes through. Gandhiji focused upon governance from below i.e setting up of institution of Panchayati Raj to address effectively the problems of the people at the grassroot level.
When British came to India- introduce Zamindari system -autocratic and coercive power resulting into the collapse of traditional structure.
Balwant Rai Mehta committee- constituted in 1952- gave its report in 1959- first Panchayati Raj institutions in Rajasthan- three tier system i.e. village level, block level, district level. Its objective was to go for self-governance wherein member of village panchayat sitting together would take up issues related to everyday life like health, rural development, sanitation etc
India is known in the world for political decentralisation. But there is a point to it India has political decentralisation but not administrative decentralisation.
All official proceedings of the PRI's can be altered/reviewed by the state to its convenience. State behaves like a big brother, their policies and finances and other processes are continuously scrutinise the state. State is also empowered to suspend any PRI institution, officer any time on the basis of inefficiency and so the members of Panchayati Raj don't have any functional autonomy.
Sarpanchati-rural lower caste women-illusion of women empowerment.
Introduction of new PRI has led to contest between old traditional powerholders and new aspirants of power. There have been instances in South India when Dalit were not permitted to cast vote in PRI election. Their votes were cast by other people. Booth capturing and muscle power is prominent and hence traditional hierarchy still persist therefore new PRI is like old wine in a new bottle.
Vellupuram village incident- The PRI election was won by a Dalit woman. She promised her electorates that once she came to power she will ensure drinking water for the masses. As per her promise she took all necessary steps to ensure water supply but dominant caste in order to pursue their dominance raped and murdered her in broad daylight. This incident left a question mark on the functioning of this modern institution in traditional society.
Rampura village incident -In this village in Rajasthan when a Dalit women came to hoist the national flag during 15 August she was beaten brutally as to how can she play the role meant for dominant caste.
Walter Fernandes indicates that PRIs are facing serious problem as it is trying to bring in the question of civil rights, democratic rights into society which is driven by culture of caste, patriarchy since ancient times. In case of Rajasthan there are instances when Dalit Sarpanch is made to sit on the floor while other members of the Panchayati Raj sit on the chair. PRI's meetings are initiated by members belonging to higher class/caste than by Sarpanch belonging to lower caste. This dichotomy indicates how PRI's have not really empowered the subaltern groups like Dalits, tribes and women.
Gail omvedt considers this kind of conflict as a failure of Panchayati Raj institutions which has not broken any ground to bring change in the power structure in village India.
Rejecting to the concept of Sarpanchpati Kalpana Shah indicate that empowerment of women in a hierarchical society can only come in a phased manner. The women Sarpanch who are not proxy leaders are going through a period of probation. She points out that power is inbuilt in women and that they will be exercising it in the most appropriate time. She considers that PRI's have really empowered women or at least it has given a boost for their self-assertion.
PRI's have worked well in states like Kerala, Karnataka and West Bengal. In case of Karnataka it has given momentum to women empowerment. Mutual self-help groups have evolved under the patronage of PRI's in Karnataka. In case of West Bengal it has made people political sensitive who are no more willing to accept any nuisance from different political leaders any longer. PRI's have introduced a political revolution in the microscopic structure of Indian society.
However a major threat to PRI's is coming from non-government organisation (NGO). The issues taken up by NGOs are delivering immediate results therefore people are backing the intervention of NGOs in rural development programme than simply wanting PRI's.
PRI's though bringing revolution in micro-politics of India, its support base is quite fragile. when social transformation takes place in traditional society driven by hierarchical principles there is absence of structural conduciveness for change and so conflicts become inevitable. Sociologically speaking these contradictions are manifestations of structural adjustment for which one cannot outrightly conceptualised that the experience of PRI's is an absolute failure. Thus India's experience with PRI is not a story of complete structural breakdown but the story of continuity and change.
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Secularization
Secularism is a western ideology initiated during the Renaissance when people started questioning the Orthodox Church. When the influence of the Church dominated the decision-making of the state, only spiritual needs of individuals were fulfilled and other needs like gender equality, poverty, unemployment were not addressed. In US religion keeps away from public but on the contrary in India people mix-up their public position with secular position.
It was realised that man and religion in India are so greatly embedded that India cannot go for nonreligious society like Communist countries therefore it has been specifically mentioned in the Constitution that every religion has freedom to preach, practice and propagate its own religious values and no citizen of the country will be discriminated on the grounds of religion.
Indian secularism stands on the premise of pluralism.
TN Madan and Ashish Nandy consider that secularism will a unique experience in Indian context because love for religion is so intensive and regular in case of India that we have never seen a single sphere without communal conflict since India's independence. They believe that religion is in the blood of people of India that strongly influenced to their choice of marriage, food behaviour, pattern of thinking, interpersonal relations and therefore to separate man in India from religion is absolutely impossible. Thus when constitution tries to separate religion from public sphere, it slowly enters into public domain in one form or the other.
Ashish Nandy indicates that more India moves in the direction of modernity, higher is the acceleration of communal conflict. Information technology, television and telecommunications acts as an accelerating medium to spread communally charged messages in a big way in contemporary India. Therefore secular education, secular employment in no way has suppressed the communal passion and communalism in India is a way of life and thinking of secularism is a difficult proposition.
These arguments of anti-secularist nature is rejected by various sociologists who makes use of certain specific scales to study the degree of secularism possible in any given society-
*to what extent the religion is prepared to go for internal reforms- to what extent one religion is prepared to coexist with other religion-to what extent one religion is prepared to borrow attributes from other religion and pass it on-and finally to what extent a state can offer equalitarian space to every religion maintaining a safe distance from every religion while discharging secular responsibilities.
Keeping in view the above scale to measure any society it can be advocated that no society is purely secular and no society is purely anti-secular or sacred.
Amartya Sen considers himself as non-reformist sociologist along with Andre Beteille and Upendra Bakshi and indicate that Indian state is duty bound to protect its secular credentials by paying equal respect to all religions. If any religious community by virtue of its size tries to seize the government through popular mandate, Constitutional provisions should be deterring them to cherish their distinctive religious goals. Therefore Indian secularism is not positioned at a weak space because the court of law, the Constitution of India stand as an obstacle to challenges coming to it.
The secularism in India is a unique experience. It has been challenged by different forces at different points of time but has never crumbled down compromising with the principles of pluralism and equality for which one can conclude that Indian secularism is Indian secularism; it's neither weak nor strong and not a replica of secularism in the West.
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13-Social movements in modern India
With the growing consciousness , people are coming forward in large numbers and it has become difficult for the state to ignore the demand of the people and introduce its own wishes. There is a dialectical relationship between state and people.
During different points of time in Indian history identity movement have also taken place so that everyone has a space in society, every individual is free and that they do not to hide their actual identity in front of others e.g. homosexuals, transgenders.
Wherever marginalization, exploitation is caused in extreme form it leads to protest which subsequently transforms itself into a movement through ideological injection e.g. civil rights movement in America under the leadership of Abraham Lincoln where blacks were united to fight against hunger and discrimination by the state and people alike.
During the colonial rule, the tribal areas were least interfered with as it was thought that it is difficult, costly and cumbersome to administer these areas. Hence it was missionaries who landed in those places to work. But some tribal areas were highly resourceful and so they were highly exploited.
Protestant movements in case of India can be divided into three distinctive stages i.e.:
Social religious movement which got momentum before freedom struggle.
Economic and political movement during the freedom struggle.
Identity and issue-based movement in contemporary India.
Protest is not overreaction of a group of people to the action of others. One goes for protest because the action of others are not acceptable by them. Protest is always a registration against the voice of dominance. Protest is reminder to the state that it has limited power. Protest movement will be maximum in a democratic setup.
Collective action can be the foundation to social movement but it is not necessary that always collective action will be leading to social movement. For instance new social movements are mostly issue-based like environmental movements, anti-war movements, civil rights movement etc that involve people from different sections of society asking them to form different kinds of mobilisation.
Collective action is not just the foundation to social movement, it may be having a larger appeal as well.
Amartya Sen: Collective action should be engineered for collective well-being. Participation in many educational programs, awareness campaigns, electoral policies are examples of collective action for collective well-being which is instrumental for the rise of an inclusive society.
Sustainable development approach forwarded by Vandana Shiva indicate that joint forest management scheme, wasteland management, watershed management involve the contesting communities accelerating collective action for common well-being. In macroscopic plane one finds out collective action is initiated by all countries of the world in areas of environmental protection, abuse of nuclear power, humanitarian aids, and political peace. Thus collective action should not only be studied from a single standpoint which consider it as a tool for class conflict, revolution and social change.
Previously social movements were highly organised, ideologically charged. But social movements today are more reflexive, reactionary, issue-based and temporal. Social movements can be distinguished from protest and collective action on the ground that social movement is programmed but Protest and collective action are not necessarily programmed.
The social movement for its success has to fulfil a number of preconditions like:
Issues Identification.
Identification and expansion of support base.
Creation of structural conduciveness.
Crystallisation of ideology.
Evolution of leadership.
Growth of organisational characteristics.
Allocation of responsibility.
Social movement passes through different stages which includes excitement stage (identification of issues), consolidation stage (propaganda and search for mass support), crystallisation stage (rise of leadership, publication of literature), maturity stage (injection of ideology and allocation of responsibility), resolution stage (accomplishment of goals and decline of social movement).
When a social movement dies out, it may give rise to a political party or the residues of social movement will operate as a reminder of past. Social movements can be classified into different types on the basis of their appeal and capabilities to introduce change like:
Transformative Movement that makes some attempt to produce absolute change.
Radical movement that makes some attempt to use violent measures to make some changes.
Restorative movement which gives importance to the restoration of some values and ideals for the common well-being of people.
Reformative movement which makes an attempt to eliminate non-progressive stereotype ideas and values from the life of people and searches for progress and happiness.
Redemptive movement which makes people to change their opinion about the existential condition instead of changing the condition.
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Peasants and farmers movement
Peasant refers to small producers who are controlling a small piece of family land, using simple technologies, family labour to gratify their consumption needs. Between man and land there is emotional relationship in peasants society. To its contrast farmers produce for market and so they view their land also from economic perspective and so land is a source of profit for them. If land fails to make profit farmers go for other forms of occupation abandoning agriculture which is not so in case of peasant. Therefore conceptualising agrarian movement as peasant movements or farmers movement is a great sociological challenge.(farmer vs peasant)
In India there is present multiple modes of production.
In some pockets of the country there are peasants, medium farmers, small and marginalised farmers who do not make a huge margin of profit from land and landless peasants.
In some areas of the country capitalist agriculture has developed which has led to migration of agricultural workers from the poor regions to these flourishing regions in search of employment, therefore the conflict between land and agriculture class and landless labourers is potentially absent in green revolution belt.
In some other areas middle farmers have been organised, they have received support from state and organised cooperatives to improve their economic conditions and so in this case also the conflict between them and agricultural labourers is mostly unfound.
In certain pockets of the country traditional form of landlordism is present. Conflict is found here.Armed rebellion.
Gail Omvedt writes that in case of India the participants of agrarian movement are tribes, lower caste, ethnic minority who is more or less were landless since historic times therefore peasant farmer movement cannot be disassociated from Dalit movement and tribal movements.
Feudal mode of agriculture is still in practice in case of Bihar, MP, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and certain pockets of Orissa. There is also semifeudal mode of agriculture practised in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh. Semi-capitalist mode of agriculture production can be found in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and pockets of Andhra Pradesh. And lastly capitalist agriculture mode of production can be found in Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh.
Some sociologists consider that movements initiated during India's freedom struggle should be considered as peasant movement whereas after India's independence the agrarian movement should be considered as farmers movement.
Even A R Desai makes a distinction between two timeframes i.e. protest during colonial period and protest during postcolonial period.
some sociologist believe that it is conceptually difficult to distinguish not only peasant movements from farmers but also agrarian movement form social and religious movements.
In India peasants and farmers movements were initiated as economic organisation highlighting the questions like landlessness, indebtedness, tenancy rights but subsequently people got unionised forging their class identity on the basis of culture and religion.
Moplah movement, Eka movement and Peasant Rebellion in case of Bengal vertically divided the people on the basis of culture and religion.
This is contradictory to Marx's understanding of class-action when he says that classes is a source peoples unification because in case of India peasants belonging to Hindu community supported Hindu landlords in Bengal rather than joining hands with Muslim peasants.
>>Peasant movement during British Period
British introduced the exploitative Land Tenure System with Ryotwari system in western and southern India and Zamindari system in eastern and northern India. These two distinctive Systems of Land Tenure System gave way to the rise of feudal Lords, sub feudal Lords, sub sub feudal Lords there by giving rise to the evolution of large body of leisure class living on the exploitation of peasants in India.
Exploitative taxation and introduction of cash crops completely paralysed subsistence production. Peasants were exploited by both Landlords and exploitative market of British. Hence movement in diff parts of country Sanyasi Vidroh, Indigo Movement, Champaran Movement, Bardoli Movement, Eka Movement, Moplah Rebellion, Birsa Munda Movement.
The above-mentioned movements had two major consequences:-
-forgetting the linguistic and regional differences ,driven by common interest the entire country got unified together and started protesting against the British.
-peasant movement offered platform for the rise of localised leadership in various parts of the country which became the precursor to the national movement in India.
AR Desai considers that peasant movement in India is the mother of India's nationalist movement.
>>Kisan Sabha Movement
1927-Kisan sabha was formed to safe guard peasants interests and to protect them exportation of landlords, money lenders and exploitative colonial regime. All the leaders of early peasant movement got associated with Kisan Sabha movement. This movement introduced Kisan Sabha in every village, stimulating the peasant to control village land and go for cooperative farming, evict absentee landlord from the land and on many occasions also promoted militaristic method to eliminate the intermediaries control over the land.
Many landlords, sub landlords and sub sub landlords took up leadership of Kisan Sabha movement exhibiting consensual attitude towards peasants and agriculture farmers. It was spelt out all over the country that the real exploiters of Indian peasantry are not local zamindars rather it is exploitative British land tenure system.
AR Desai considers that this movement is originally initiated by middle peasants and subsequently received ideological support from middle-class youth and finally when this movement acquired a nationalistic appeal several peasants joined the movement as a result of which class movement got converted into mass movement.
The leaders of Kisan Sabha subsequently became leaders of Congress and promised indigenous farmers/peasants Heaven on Earth after India's independence.
>>Naxalite movement
This movement was started from Siliguri district of West Bengal by Charu Mazumdar who belonged to upper class affluent family. During that period the state was ruled by Communist Party and its associate, however the government had not taken serious steps to implement land reform systems in true spirit.
Charu Mazumdar alleged that land distribution amongst landless peasants are unfavourable and non-productive therefore state as a matter of formality is engaged in land distribution. State is limiting farmers from encroaching the fertile land owned by the absentee landlord deploying police and using legal court.
He mobilised 20,000 peasants, gave them training in modern techniques of warfare and asked them to loot police stations to procure weapons and to attack zamindars, forcibly occupying the land. In every village gorilla warfare techniques were taught to the youth and village army was trained to fight against police and private army of the landlords. This forced the state government to expedite land reform in several state.
Various sociologists consider that naxalite movement should be studied from people's perspective rather than from State perspective. Masses have appreciated naxalite movement because they have introduced welfare schemes, educational campaign, cooperative farming. To make naxalites unpopular state police have demolished many schools, bridges constructed by naxalites therefore naxalite movement today is a struggle between peoples power state power.
>>Contemporary Agrarian movement
After India's independence peasant movement has gone to the state of oblivion. The factors responsible for that can be attributed to rural development programme introduced by the state. More significantly cooperative movement, green revolution in North, Western and South India have weakened peasant movement. Regular employment-access to market-dependency among them increases-compatible working relationship.
Dipankar Gupta indicates that land tenure system has gone through a series of transformation since India's independence. Division of land as contributed for segmentation of agricultural land, as a result if the father is big farmer of the and his children are reduced into middle farmers. Relationship between agriculture workers and the middle and small peasants has become an inclusive relationship driven by dependency. Agricultural labourers today are supported by the public policy of the State hence they are mute and accepting exploitation. Thus the intervention and developmental policies have sufficiently contributed for decline of unrest in India.
By cooperative movements small and marginal farmers in India liberated themselves from historical exploitation, gather self confidence and improved their quality of life. This view was contradicted by marxist scholar Utsa Pattnaik. She said all the big farmers are hijacking all the institutionalised benefits in their own favour. There is consolidation of capitalism in Punjab and Haryana.
Studies have found out the paradox in development in the green revolution belt of the country where poor farmers are committing suicide and rich farmers are consolidating their economic base.
Bharatiya Kisan Union operating in North India is consolidating its base, mobilising all the cash crop produces and bargaining with the government to benefit the capitalist agriculturalists.
Peasant Movement in India is fractured and articulates different concerns in time and space.
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Backward Classes and Dalit movement
Dalit movement is a contemporary phenomena started during freedom struggle has becomeforceful today. It got its ideological support from backward class movement- Satya Sodhak Samaj movement and Self Respect movement etc.
Backward classes is a very loose concept. Sociologically these classes consist of a large number of backward castes which remain above schedule caste and below the upper caste. These casts consist of intermediate caste the cultivating caste, artisans and service castes.
Satyashodak Samaj which consolidated the masses along the castelines. E.V Ramaswamy started Self-Respect movement against the Brahmins in South India. The SNDP movement in Kerala was more of a reformist movement.
In 1950s there was a widespread desire among the non-Brahmin castes to be categorized as Backward .Subsequently Backward Class commission was set up to look into the conditions and requirements of these classes. Mandal Commission submitted its report in 1980 recommending reservations for backward castes in educational institutions and government offices.
>>Dalit Movements
Dalit, also called Outcaste. Dalits are a mixed population of numerous caste groups all over India. Dalits work as manual labourers cleaning streets, latrines, and sewers.Engaging in these activities was considered to be polluting to the individual, and this pollution was considered contagious. As a result, Dalits were commonly segregated, and banned from full participation in Hindu social life.
Dalit movement receives momentum and confidence from Gandhi. He was recognised as mass leader and when he dined with Dalits it gave a mass message to eradicate this discrimination. He gave the concept of Harijan.
Most of the people who could not go for Sanskritisation went for conversion as a protest against Brahminic domination. Gandhiji said that "one is high or low on the basis of deeds and not on the basis of birth".
Gail omvedt considers that Dalit movement is not an ideological movement but rather it is a class movement. Dalit identity and poverty as an experience are interconnected to each other. Since the beginning of Indian civilisation till contemporary times Dalits are oppressed class. Thus their condition is no different from blacks in case of West.
Dalit panthers Party->Republican Party of India->Bahujan Samaj Party=indication of politicisation of Dalit cause rather than focusing upon ameliorating the conditions of Dalits.
Some sociologists are also concerned about the rise of Dalits within Dalit. Their concern is that Dalit movement in India has given way to the growth of elitism and that different Dalit leaders does not only engage in contesting different ideologies but they also keep changing their ideology according to their own convenience. Therefore Dalit party today is not a product of Dalit movement rather it is a politics of opportunism and politics of convenience similarl to other political parties.
The time will come, they would take pride and conviction in glorifying the idea of yes we are dalits.
Dalit movement is a movement of protest, a protest against Brahmanism, inequality, cultural subordination. It wants to demolish the distinction between man and man. It was to create a society driven by self-respect, inclusiveness and equity. Thus Dalit movement is an ideologically charged ,homogenised class movement intended to bring change of structure rather than change in structure.
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Feminist Movement
Issues such as reproductive rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, women's suffrage, sexual harassment and sexual violence.
A Lingam advocate the feminist movement in India is slowly leading towards NGOisation. She finds out that thousands of NGOs working around the country are taking up women issues differently in different space. She believes that women movement in India should be integrated in order to become more focused in approach and appeal.
Veena Mazumdar-urban and rural india women movement-In urban mostly accused to being middleclass, educated women's movement who are questioning to women's rights both in public and private sphere.In rural areas problems are related to women's livelihood, their protection and their rights.
Gail Omvedt divided India's feminist movement into two types such as women equality movement and women liberation movement.
>>First Phase 1850-1915
social reform movements related to caste and gender relations. uproot the social evils of sati (widow immolation), to allow widow remarriage, to forbid child marriage, and to reduce illiteracy, as well as to regulate the age of consent and to ensure property rights through legal intervention. The women involved were those related to male activists, elite, western educated, upper caste Hindus.
>>Second Phase 1915-1947
Gandhiji-CDM womens participation-role of women went beyond caring, sacrifice and tolerance- Women-only organizations like All India Women's Conference (AIWC) and the National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW) emerged.
Women were grappling with the issues relating to the scope of womens political participation, womens franchise, communal awards, and leadership roles in political parties.
There was provision for womens upliftment through affirmative action, maternal health and child care provision (crches), equal pay for equal work etc. The state adopted a patronizing role towards women. Women in India did not have to struggle for basic rights as did women in the West.
Kalpana Shah- divides Indian feminist movement into three types:
Moderate it talks of gender equality, sensitisation of state towards the needs of women.
Socialist it is largely influenced by Marxist ideology and speaks about class mobilisation and class action.
Liberal it is concerned about integrative approach to women issues involving state, women organisation, women research centres and feminist groups.
Women movement in India is more Indian addressing to issues associated with everyday life of women coming from different strata of social life.
Environment Movement
Nature nurtures individual and is the foundation to our religion. Love for nature is not contemporary phenomena. Since historic times they are never considered as lifeless. Atharva Veda gives description about different kinds of plants which have medicinal value hence nature is the source of man's life.
During British are colonial rulers found huge deposits of minerals present in the forest. They tried to persuade the tribal people and trap mineral wealth. Forest became the land of the state and the forest produce became first right of the state. The use of land for commercial purposes displaced the tribals leading to distressful relationships.
>>Chipko Movement
In the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand-The landmark event in this struggle took place in 1974, when a group of peasant women acted to prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim their traditional forest rights that were threatened by the contractor system of the state Forest Department.
Village communities took responsibility to protect forest from police and commercial forest users. They initiated 24-hour surveillance which persisted for 7 to 8 years.Spreaded across India. World immediately took notice of this non-violent Tree hugging movement .
Above all, it stirred up the existing civil society in India, which began to address the issues of tribal and marginalized people.
Ramachandra Guha writes that dams are symbols of civilisation, development, economy, modernity. It talks about sociology of dams and raise many questions "Dams For Whom"? He writes that due to dams, from 1950 to 2000 around 15 million people are being displaced. Peasants, tribal communities, illiterate people have no exposure to modern education, they don't have the skills and hence they are directly dependent on natural resources. The state has not provided adequate rehabilitation to the affected people.
Jawahar Lal Nehru said that for the larger cause of development of nation people should make some sacrifice. He considered industries as temples of modernity and to Achieve economic development they need to be set up. But in reality the actual cost of development is paid by the indigenous people who in the name of development lost everything.
Nehru considered the industrial development as builder of modern India but it has created more disparity leading to poverty and inequality wherein there is growth but no development.
Sardar sarovar Project-Narmada Bachao Andolan-Medha Patker-PIL.
ChIlka Bachao Andolan- Commercial fishing- livelihood of local fishermen affected . People went for both violent and nonviolent methods followed by massive protest resulting into a ban on trawlers. This also resulted the return of migratory birds and preserved the beauty of nature and also its ecology.
Bhopal gas tragedy-Open cast mining in Jharkhand-affecting health and livelihood of millions.
The Bhagidari movement of Delhi is a good example of this kind of environmental movement.
A balance must be established between economic growth and environmental protection. We need to go for systematic planning and scientific application through the use of modern technology to minimise environmental impact as much as possible and make it a development led growth rather than growth without development.
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Ethincity and Identity movement
Struggle between tribes and non-tribes are historic but more specific during colonial times. Tribal protest was not anti-imperialism as they were unaware of this term. They just meant to control their own land. The tribal movements in central India was against exploitation. Tribal never makes a difference between indigenous exploitation and colonial exploitation.
Every community while searching for identity went for territorial demarcation. Language cannot bring unity among people because different tribes speak different languages therefore what brings unity is the territory. If Asamese for Ahom, Maharashtra for Marathis then what is for tribal people.
Territory is essential for political assertion and this movement became intensified when the tribals were dislocated and wanted their land back. Fragmented tribal movements went for unification, proclaiming their identity, territory, state etc to revive their past culture e.g. Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh identity are examples of such movement.
Jharkhand movement revolves around factors like culture, economic and socio - polity. It is ananti-colonial and anti-imperial movement; anti-government movement which is reacting to development displacement and finally anti-exploitation movement united against traders and moneylenders. Identity is the foundation to tribal movement in general and Jharkhand movement in particular. Identity is foundation to social movement has been an essence of ethno-politics in India.
In case of tribal society geographical isolation, land alienation, industrialisation, inflow of nontribal population into tribal areas put the tribal population into a disadvantaged position which led to glorification of tribal identity which further resulted into a movement in search of separate state. Identity focused movement has gone through stages of revolution starting from the colonial period.
Birsa Munda movement,Gond rebellion, Santhal rebellion are often considered as peasant movement by sociologist's but Dr.V.Xaxa considers these movements as identity focused movements. He says that when Hindu peasants simply rebelled against exploitative land tenure system, the tribal people rebelled against the lost of identity than just loss of livelihood. He criticised the nationalist sociologists like Ghurye, MN Srinivas, NK Bose who believed that tribes voluntarily accepted Hindu culture and that they are backward Hindus. Tribals went for non-tribal identity for social recognition, for survival because non-tribals were predominant in every area. Therefore it is a form of enforced identity.
Adivasi Mahasabha was constituted and attempts were made to unify all dispersed tribe located in central Indian state to stand together and go for homeland for tribesmen, known as greater Jharkhand as sovereign state.
The nationalist aspiration of tribes of central India is considered as an attempt for tribal demand to control the benefits of progress and modernity. Srinivas considers a as obstacle in the process of nation-building and Ghurye tells this as secessionist and antinational movement.
Even in tribal states non-tribals have a significant economic and numerical presence as a result the tribal states evolved public policies that do not fulfil the aspiration of tribal community. Therefore the tribes are not divided on class lines which is glorifying naxalite movement and Maoist insurgency in tribal states. The marginalisation, displacement and alienation of tribals in their own soil is providing foundation to common ideology and common class identity accelerating class conflicts in tribal India. Therefore central Indian tribes are shifting from identity-based movement to issue-based movement.
In case of North East India, the states of Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripuraare experiencing identity movements. In Manipur two groups exist i.e. Nagas and Kukkis. Tripura is full with non-tribal population which is the result of escalation of conflicts among the people.
The Bodo people in Assam who consider themselves to be the original inhabitants are outnumbered slowly by the Bengali population who have control over industries which leads to regular conflict between them. Tribal identity is glorified due to this infiltration of non tribal people into tribal areas.
In 1970 separate State of Nagaland came into existence thus giving right to the people to have their own government which further glorified political aspirations by various tribes of other states. The same thing happened in case of Mizoram wherein the Mizos who considered themselves as Highlanders and indigenous people/original inhabitant protested for a separate State status which was granted to them.
Other movements can die out but identity movement will survive in one way or the other e.g. in contemporary times-Maharashtra Navnirman Sena.
Thus it can be concluded that identity and tribal conflicts in India is a conflict between:
state versus people;
within a state insider versus outsider;
within tribe one faction versus other faction.
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14-Population Dynamics
Population explosion= rapid population growth. Not always bad. When economy is not capable of maintaining the population, then its a problem. For India and China it might be arolem, where as for Israel, Russia and Japan, their governments promote population growth.
Pre-industrial phase=high BR and and DR=agararian economy=low technology=infant mortality rate high=so insecurity regading the survival of new borns=motivation for frequent child births=high fertility.
Early industrialisation phase= knowledge about hygiene=sanitation=health=development of science and technology= vaccinations for epidemics and endemic diseases=low infant mortality rate=low mortality rate. High BR due to low status of women=religion glorifying child birth= deamand unskilled large manpower= traditional outlook, not open to adopt family planning techniques etc= high BR=population explosion.
Advanced industrial society= low BR and low DR= improved medicines and other social and natural environments=participation in the economy requires highly specialised skills-so prolonged training and education is needed=so proper upbringing of children become important with in limited resources=child birth controlled= people became rational and not so much religion and myth driven.Improved status of women=working women=concerned about health of mothers=easy availability of birth control measures due to innovation in the birth control technology=child birth stabilised=stable population size.
India is in pre-industrial phase=as in last 30 years population has doubled=as per 2011 sensus provisional data=1.21 billion= a matter of concern for all of us.
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Death and Mortality
Women died in the time child birth, no proper diagnosis of diseases. Other factors- western medicines were inadequate for urban areas,not reaching rural areas-poverty no adequate food-prone for diseases-not health conscious-were not informed about healthy practices- married couple were not aware that health deteriorates after each child birth-child and infant death were high- medical facility was costly not affordable by all.
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Size and Growth of population of India
2011=2.1 billion, 18 crore added after 2001. 1951 census 360 million. Change in size of population means= added by birth, substracted by death, net number by immigration or emigration. Per capita production of food grain has increased but only marginally, because of high population growth. Housing shortage. Health and Medical services have not been met yet. The situation related to unemployment and underempoyment reflects the inability of the employment market to absorb the pressure of increasingly large labour force.
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Fertility
Reproductive performance of individual or group= in the crude birth rate considering the children born alive is an important measurement of fertlity.

1. Religion and Social institutions supporting high fertility.

2. Marriage is sacrament in Hindu religion.

3. Custom in India, girl child to be married before she attains puberty. Even today despite legislation of age bar at 18. Traditionally, they start childbearing at an early age, continue to do so till she reaches the age at which they are no longer biologically capable of bearing children.

4. Women who do not bear child looked doen upon by society. The new daughter-in-law attains a rightful status in the family only after she produces a child,preferably a son.

5. Why son is imortant historically-lighting the funeral pyre of father effecting the salvation of his fathers soul- extending family line-taking care of parents at their old age-it is so important that child bearing goes on in the hope of having atleast one son.

6. Children are considered to be gifts of god. No control of child bearing.

7. High IMR and child mortality rate- in the hope of some children will reach their childhood-they may have more children .

8. Low status of women-unquestionably accept excessive child bearing-without any alternative avenues of child bearing.

9. Poor families consider them as source of income.

Implications of high fertility rate-

1. Women are tied down to childbearing and childrearing for the best years of their productive lives- denied the opportunity to explore other avenues for self-expression and self-development.

2. Excessive childbearing affects their own health and that of their children. Looking after a large number of children puts further strain on the physical and emotional resources of such women.

3. Burden on the bread winner of the family.To escape from the problems of everyday life. He takes up to drinking- further deterioration of the economic and emotional well being of the family.

4. The children are sometimes unwanted, unloved and neglected. Childlabour at an early age. No education, whole life spoiled. Girls case more worse. Help her mother at an early age. Domestic chores. And looking after siblings, when mother is at work.
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Mortality
In IMR, girls mortality is more than boys. Biologically the chances survival of the girl child is more than the boy , in reality the opposite happens.mortality rate among Girl children is more compared to Boys.
Crude Death Rate : It is the ratio of total registered deaths occurring in a specified calendar year to the total midyear population multiplied by 1000.
Expectation of life at birth: The average expectation of life at birth.
Infant mortality rate : Infants are defined as those children who are in the first year of their life. As an indicator for determining the social economic status of the country and the quality of life in it.
Decline in mortality rate in India due to public health and disease control measures. These include vaccines against many communicable diseases, eradication of killer diseases like plague and smallpox and extension of health and medical services. The effect of severe famines have also been considerably reduced by preventive and relief measures.
When strong supports are not provided by the joint family, the burden falls on society. Old-age homes or foster care homes for the aged have to be provided from the state funds. Various schemes to provide pension to the old.
The high levels of infant and child mortality, a couple may go in for a large number of children in the hope that at least a few would survive to reach adulthood. Thus, apart from emotional trauma caused to parents, high infant and child mortality rates result in high fertility rates leading to inflation and population.
While in traditional societies, age demands respect, modern societies may be more youth oriented.
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Age structure of India
More infants and children survive leading to an increase in the proportion of the young persons in the population as in the case of India. Ageing of the population. Such a situation prevails in developed countries like Sweden, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Japan, France and Australia.
The data shows that Indias working age population (15-64 years) is now 63.4% of the total, as against just short of 60% in 2001. The numbers also show that the dependency ratio the ratio of children (0-14) and the elderly (65-100) to those in the working age has shrunk further to 0.55. Even as the western world is ageing, these new numbers show that Indias population is still very young,
As fertility falls faster in urban areas, rural India is younger than urban India.
India, as expected, is not getting any younger. Indias median age has risen from around 22 years in 2001 to over 24 years in 2011.
The proportion of the population under the age of 24 has dropped by four percentage points, but demographers caution that this should not be interpreted as a sign that the youth bulge is shrinking. With falling fertility, the number of infants and children is what reduces first and this is what we are seeing with the number of under-25s falling, Faujdar Ram, director of the Mumbai-based International Institute for Population Sciences said.
The key issue in terms of a demographic dividend is whether this growing youth bulge has the right skills for the workforce.
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Sex Ratio
Number of females per 1000 males. 2011 census=940 Though biologically stronger than male, the female in India is in a socially and culturally disadvantaged position and has been accorded a inferior status since centuries. The death rates for the females in most age groups are higher than those for the males. A sex ratio that is adverse to the females is a peculiarity of the Indian demographic picture not seen anywhere else.
Family Planning and Welfare
The limited success in adoption of family planning in India can be explained in terms of various socio-cultural and economic factors. Urban population is more responsive to family planning measures than rural population. Further, educated groups accept birth control practices much more easily.
Age of marriage- The traditional practices of early marriage in rural India and among the poorer sections of urban population contributes to high fertility.
Low status of women: The low status of women, lack of awareness regarding the consequences of mothers health due to frequent pregnancy and the value system in India according to which respect is accorded to women on the basis of number of children, especially sons they have given birth to, are responsible for high birth rate. Even the joint family system in which women as wife is accorded a low status is responsible for high birth rate. Women themselves decide to give birth to a number of sons and seek emotional security in their relationship with the sons. This is mainly due to the fact that in a patrilineal joint family husbandwife relations are not characterised by high emotional intimacy.
Religious Beliefs: Indian society continues to be predominantly rural and even in urban areas diffusion of secular scientific education is confined only to the upper and middle classes. All religions extol childbirth and are against any intervention in the process of reproduction.
The preoccupation with the birth of a son is to be found even among educated people in the urban areas and thus the religious belief discourages them to adopt family planning programmes. Even a Islam discourages its believers from adopting birth control measures. The minority consciousness among the Muslims is another factor which motivates them in giving birth to many children.
High infant mortality and lack of provisions for old age Security: High infant mortality and the inability of the state to provide any provision for the old-age creates a sense of insecurity and makes the rural people rely on their male children, to provide support in the old age And hence birth of many children is considered desirable.
Economic reasons: Another most important factor which creates a preference for a larger family is the high incidence of poverty in both rural and urban areas. Among the poor sections of the population , children are viewed as an asset. The upbringing of the children does not require any extra effort, neither do they provide for the education of the children. At a very early age both boys and girls in the poorer families start working and begin contributing to the family income. Similarly, in the farming sector among the middle and small farmers, the agricultural practices are based on labour-intensive technology. Thus large sized families are considered desirable because they supply the manpower needed for agricultural activities. Thus poverty and backwardness and lack of modern scientific education are also responsible to a great extent in discouraging people from the adoption of family planning measures.
Another factor which has contributed to the poor performance of family planning programs is that- the focus has been primarily on birth control , rather than making a multipronged attack on various aspects which are responsible for high birth rate.
Only in the sixth and seventh five year plans, a broader perspective was adopted in the form of family welfare programme.
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15-Challenges of Social transformation
Crisis of developmet :Displacement
Development induced displacement- equal to forced migration- violation of human rights- effects spill over generations- loss of traditional means of employment- change of environment- disrupted community life and relationships- marginalisation- psychological trauma.
Singur WB Tata Nano Shifted to Guju- Posco Odisha- developing SEZs- Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada and camcellation of the dam by world bank due to protests- Tehri dam outer himalays etc.
Devlopment induced displacement- ecological- social-emotive- cultural connotations.
Land given for compensation- infertile- non productive. No compensation for common property resources like forest land, pasture land, river bed which are not compensated- Traditional skill lose its significace, no income, poverty- sometimes they are asked to pay differential price, difficult for them to arrange- distress migration-women and children are most affected- sociological cost-human cost-ecological cost-cultural cust which is more than the economic cost.
Steps to be taken- before introduction of any project, alternate site for rehabilitation, should nt be far away from the original place-common property resources re-enacted- education and training so that they can be employed- sanitation, education, health care, community infrastructure support- minimum ecological damaga- consent based approach not consultation.
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Ramachandra Guha- Environmental movements are not grounded on skepticism-it is addressing to the fundamental questions like civil rights, political rights, economic rights, which is taken away from them by the protector of these rights.
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Environmental movement- peoples perception of state stands dialectical to the strategy for development adopted by state government.
Land aquision resettlement and rehabilitation bill
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Environmental problems
Economic development- population growth 300 million in 1947 to 1.2 billion now- strain on countrys natural resources.
Industrial pollution- soil erosion- water bodies pollution- land degradation- deforestation- unplanned urbanisation- rapid industrialisation- heavy reliance on coal fo power generation- more than 80% of energy from coal.
Land degradation- wind erosion-water logging- bad land use practices.
Loss of biodiversity- Air pollution- Contamination of water bodies along with ground water aquifers- Fly ash from coal plants, which have traces of alumina and traces of carcinogenic material- Dams and large area submerged in water- Open cast mining, ground water and surface water contamintation, eye sight issue and lungs issue,when abandoned, no re-growth of ecology,permanent damage to environment.
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Addressing Sustainability

Meeting present needs keeping an eye on future generations- Removal of poverty- Technology and infrastructure decisions should be taken on the basis of sustainabiity- evaluation of projects in ecological perspective- incuding local people to know their stakes- Biomass is the fuel for rural poor, startegy to help them for sustainable usage-Sacred groves and ponds by community participation-Women empowerment- PRIs- Effect of Globalisation-SHGs.
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Violence against Women

Marraige Occupations- norms of every day behaviour- there is a cultural lag- even a backlash when women demand their newly available rights.
Criminal violence- Rape, Murder, Abduction, Molestation,prostitution, trafficing, Acid attack.
Domestic violence- Dowry death,wife battering, sexual abuse by kins, maltreatment of widows and elderly women,torture of daughter-in-laws.
Social and cultural violence- Female foeticide,infanticide,eve-teasing,widow immolation(sati), refusing to give share to women in property.

Domestic violence-young married women- in their affinal homes- beating, turturing,verbal abuse, starving,locking up, imposing excess work burden,sexual abuse, marital rape, even murder or woman commits suicide- murder camouflaged as suicide- Reasons- suspicion about wifes fiedility, her childlessness- not bearing a son- disputes about household matter- wifes protests about husbands alcoholism- husbands infactuation with another woman etc- complaints in these areas are rarely registered- if registered rarely apprehended- if apprehended rarely brought court- if brought to court rarely convicted. Sometimes Media and womens group put pressure.
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Tulsi Patel age of marriage, frequency of pregnancy, womens health, their rights over food are decided by traditional customs and conventions not by her choice. Women are assumed to take the role of preparing food and produce children.
Nivedita Menon- The gender gap in education is related to the problem of dowry-birth of child is considered as a future liability- In GR belts they dont see the light of the day- female foeticide.
MN Srinivas- Dowry as modern day Sati.
Malavika Karlekar- Domestic violence- more in urban upper middle class families- Women are subjected to Devi-Dasi dichotomy more sacifice will cosidered Devi- asking for her rights Dasi and subjected to physical and mental agony.
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Rape-grossly unreported due to the stigma attached to the victim- young girls in squatter settlements- low caste and tribal women- women during communal riots- AFSPA army and paramilitary in sensitive areas- disaster hit regions.
Child marriage- physical injury to girl due to early consummation of marriage- early pregnancies can be fatal- emotional strain of domestic responsibilities-Child Marriage Restraint Act
Prostitution- Prevention of Immoral Traffic in Women Act- poverty, sexual abuse and rape in childhood makes them easy victims of the prostitution racket- women rescued from brothels face rejection from their families- fate in rescue home is also bad.
Eve-teasing- harassment of women in public places-both rural and urban-Verma committee report included eveteasing-SCs order to govt to treat the eveteaser with an iron fist.
Acid attack- SCs order, regulation on sale of acid etc.
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How to adress- Creating awareness among women about their rights- strcit laws- morally sensitive officers- strong support system for women in distress- moral support-legal aid- giving them jobs- running training programmes- legal literacy- school curriculum should promote equality among genders and respect for women- Sensitization of the police- government official- judiciary etc.
Ujjawala- Swadhar- STEP-One stop crisis centre= govt pgms
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Ethnic Conflicts
Ethnic group- common language- common culture- sometimes shared religion- common ancestry-endogamy-common religious faith.
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Ghanashyam Saha- During Indias freedom struggle, there was glorification of north south divide- apprehension north indias brahminic sanskritic culture will be imposed on indigenous non-sanskritic dravidian peasant culture. So Tamil Brahmins first went for modern education, trade and commerce without rejecting sanskritik values- non brahmins went for modernisation and secularisation rejecting sanskritic values-hence caste was weak in south india, communal disparity was minimum and political awareness was more.
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Assam-due to influx of Bengalis
Meghalaya- between Garo and Khasi tribes- not for culture rather access for power, education etc.
Manipur- Conflict between Naga and Kuki-On control over public institutions-Tribal advisory council-District autonomous council-looks for land , forest and other resources-son of the soils is getting glorified.
Maharashtra- Mumbaikars-non marathis- access to education and employment- 1960s it was between South indians vs marathis- now it is north indians vs marathis.
Hindi as national language issue- to promote unity in diversity- riot in Tamil Nadu.
Ethnic conflicts- manifest cause-language, region, religion. Latent cause-conflicting economic and political interests.
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Communalism
Indian context- conflict between religious communities
Bipin Chandra- marxist historian- anti human mobilisation- lose lose situation- minority communalism and majority communalism- with modernity and literacy communalism wouldnt disappear- historically glorification of communalism- Mao in china uneducated- Hitler in Germany highly educated masses
Khuswant singh Communalism has nothing to do with ideology- first phase politics then economcs and then differential psychosis- in all cases th religious minorities suffer a lot.
Amartya Sen, Upendra Bakshi, Andre Beteille, Rajeev Bhargav historic roots of comunal tensions- india pak division bad memories- Britishs divide and rule policy.
Repeated communal tension- concentration of minorities in specific localities.
State support to communal tension- Vote bank politics behind communal tensions.
T N Madan- think communl- eat communal- eat communal- marry communal-speak communal- glorification of communal identities- Secularism is impossible- communalism is bound to appear in one form or the other.
Sudhir Kakkar- Communalism a state of mind- modernity brings uniformity and people love diversity- most of the communal tensions in modern India- more modernity more communal tensions.
Sociologits- Kerala model vs Dharavi slum or Aligarh communalism
It should not be studied only from political and economic stand point but also from development disparity.
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Illiteracy and disparities in education
Traditional- Sanskritic education and Madrasa education
British- non vocational and christian missionaries
British education system- new middle class- glorification of class education
Kothari commission(1968)- To accelerate mass education- community made mud school building- 5 years, pukka house, grants in aid- 9 years full grant- many schools came up, but without adequate teachers.
1990s- universalisation of education- vocatinalisation of secondary educaion- delinking of jobs from certificate.
Veena Mazumdar- entry of a girl to the world of work at a tender age- the compulsion of dowry- patriarchal character of society which emphasizes on sexual purity- lack of schools for girls- lack of women teachers- responsible for gender gap in education.
Recent Supreme courts order to constuct sanitation facilities in schools, because of lack of sanitaion facilities, girls are the majority amon dropouts.
Among STs- curriculum is not revised- texts not available in thier triba language- huge gap between tribal thinking and courses in schools- large scale dropouts.
Sachar Committee report on muslim education- 4% 10th- 2% 12th- 1.2% graduation- 1% graduation among women- state sponsored madrasa eduction- importance to religious education, producing youths unfit for modern employment- orthodox islamic world view prohibited co-education- so less literacy among muslim women.
Modernity- Rich people pvt schools-poor students govt schools- RTE is a myth- SCs order 25% reservation in private schools-influence of social background on education- Cycles by state govts to girl students and SC ST students- Laptops to meritorius students bt stae govts.
Andre Beteille- In the sphere of education there is present social and cultural reproduction rather than education promoting equality in Indian society.
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Poverty, Deprivation and Inequalities
Economist- Calorie and Income
Sociologist- Access to education, Health care facilities, source of entertainment, quality of life, political participation.

Amartya Sen- Poverty is a life experience, cant be explained in mechanical economics terms.

Andre Beteille- Poverty is more contagious than pollution. Poverty breeds poverty. If the father is poor,he cant buy nutritious food,good education for his children, children will endup in low paying jobs, hence poverty continues.

SC Dubey- Poverty and prosperity are self perpetuating in character. In case of India, most of the poor are born as poor, few of the poors stay as non-poors and none of the rich ever become poor.

Dada Bhai Naroji- first nationalist who relate poverty to colonial rule- drain of wealth theory.


AR Desai- None of the poverty alliviation programmes of state is successful in eradicating poverty. Poverty linked to ecology. Rural poors coming to urban environment and after a long period of time spoiling their health and going back to rural environment. Hence poverty is transferred and transmitted rather getting cured.

Planning commissions recent poverty line figures-based on Tendulkar committee report- 2400 calories in rural areas and 2100 calories in urban areas- accordingly money to purchase these items. International poverty line 1 dollar in PPP terms. 32Rs in urban and 27 Rs in rural areas.
Recent reports on poverty figures have to be included- Civil society criticised the poverty line figures.

Poverty is not just an economic handicap- Policy makers not took humanistic figures like happiness, quality of life, freedom, gender equality into considertaion- so holistic approach is needed to solve the problem of inequality,health,education, land allocation, employment opportunities etc- mechanistic approach to poverty is responsible for its perpetuation.

Yogendra Singh- poverty perpetuates because of lack of activities by civil society organisations- Rampant among SCs, STs ,elderly persons, physically handicapped, victims of disstress migration and single parent family.

Anand Kumar BookPolitics of poverty Most of the poverty eradication programmes are not to eliminate poverty but to manifest the visibility of government to people. Anti poverty programmes are becoming hotbeds of politics in rural India, dividing people on the basis of caste, creed, religion, political affiliation; therefore politics of poverty ensures poverty stays in India to make India a democracy.
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Caste conflicts study from Note-3 Page No-21
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Religious revivalism- not done well- study from Note-3 Page No- 32
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:-Santosh Kumar Behera