Before 1947, the Indian subcontinent was a single geographical unit comprising India, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. However, political and administrative compulsions led to the division of the subcontinent and the eventual break-up of its social and economic unity on religious and ethnic identities. Consequently, people of the same village often found themselves citizens of two different countries separated by a line. Their livelihoods were severely threatened by the disruption of trade as barriers were erected.
Indias boundary with each of its neighbours runs through a variety of ecological milieus, each with its own unique setting and associated problems. For example, India-Pakistan border areas are spread across extreme climatic conditions given that the boundary runs from the hot Thar Desert in Rajasthan to the cold Himalayas in Jammu and Kashmir. Similarly, in the north, the India-China boundary runs along one of the loftiest mountain
ranges covered with snow all through the year. The India-Myanmar boundary is draped with lush tropical forests with its myriad undergrowths. The Indo-Bangladesh boundary has to
cope up with the ever-shifting riverbeds in the region. These diverse ecological and climatic conditions create immense hurdles for extending the security and administrative reach in these border areas. Coupled with this, the man-made nature of these boundaries also throws up serious issues such as border disputes, porous borders, continuance of trans-border ethnic and social ties, etc. Together, they pose a serious challenge to the effective management of the borders.
India has 15,106.7 km. of land border and a coastline of 7,516.6 km. including island territories.
Challenges to Border Management
Indo-Bangladesh Border
* Border was drawn by Boundary Commission chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe.
* Cyril Radcliff noted that the Bengal has very few natural boundaries. The border thus meanders through villages, agricultural lands, and rivers with many disputed pockets. Un-demarcated stretches, existence of enclaves (chhit-mohols), and adverse possessions have been causing constant friction.
Enclaves: portion of territory within or surrounded by a larger territory whose inhabitants are culturally or ethnically distinct.
Adverse possessions: another's real property can be acquired withoutcompensation, by holding the property in a manner that conflicts persist
* In most cases it was decided that the district boundary should constitute the land boundary and for the riverine boundary, the mid-stream of the main channel of the rivers.
* However, because of the nature of the boundary some old and new disputes arose leading to renewed tensions.
* To reduce tensions, the Nehru-Noon Agreement on India-East Pakistan Border was signed in 1958.
* In 1974, three years after the liberation of Bangladesh, the then prime ministers Indira Gandhi and Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman, inked an Indira-Mujib Agreement to settle the land boundary issue.
* Under the agreement, India retained the southern half of South Berubari Union No.12 and the adjacent enclaves and Bangladesh retained Dahagram and Angorpota enclaves. India also promised to lease corridor, Tin Bigha to Bangladesh to connect Dahagram with Panbari Mouza.
* But even after so many years, the enclaves and adverse possessions have not been exchanged. At present, there are 111 Indian enclaves in Bangladesh and 51 enclaves of Bangladesh in India.
* India does not have access to these enclaves in Bangladesh, and hence, no administrative set-up to provide facilities like police stations, courts, schools, roads, hospitals, banks, markets, etc. to their residents could be established. They are also excluded from periodic Census surveys and elections. In many instances, anti-social elements and insurgents misuse the absence of police forces and take shelter in these enclaves.
* As regards adverse possessions, 38 patches of Indian land are in adverse possession of Bangladesh and 50 patches of Bangladeshi land are in adverse possession of India.
* Various push factors such as political upheavals, religious conflicts, demographic pressures, environmental crises and pull factors such as availability of land, employment opportunities, medical care, and education have contributed to the large-scale influx of Bangladeshis into India.
* The Task Force on Border Management headed by Shri Madhav Godbole, which submitted its report in 2001 said 3 lakh Bangladeshis entering India illegally every month.
* This illegal migration has changed the demographic profile of many border states, which has resulted in separatist movements.
* Presently, the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), the All Tripura Tiger Force (ATTF), the National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT), and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB) as well as several other insurgent outfits from the Northeast have bases in the Chittagong, Khagrachari, and Sylhet districts of Bangladesh.
* Smuggling of cattle has become a serious concern. Truckloads of cattle from Haryana, Rajasthan, UP and MP are shipped to the India-Bangladesh border for grazing purposes. From here, these cattle are smuggled into Bangladesh as they fetch more prices. Interestingly, the Bangladesh government levies custom duties on these smuggled cattle at the rate of Rs. 420 per cattle. And it is estimated that the Indian government is losing Rs. 10560 crores to cattle smugglers.
* Along with cattle, smuggling of arms, and other essential items such as sugar, salt and diesel, human and narcotics trafficking, counterfeit Indian currency, kidnapping, and thefts are quite rampant.
(Just as India leased land, Bangladesh too can lease land to India which is equivalent of the excess land that is getting along the narrow chicken neck area (Siliguri corridor). That would be of great strategic importance)
Indo-Myanmar Border
* The boundary was demarcated in 1967 under an agreement signed by both countries.
* Under the Government of India Act of 1935, Myanmar was separated from India, but the resolution of the border between them was left to the newly governments.
* The rise of insurgency and subsequent violation of the boundary by both insurgents and security forces of both countries forced India and Myanmar to negotiate a settlement on 1967.
* The rugged terrain makes movement and the overall development of the area difficult. The internal dynamics of the region in terms of the clan loyalties of the tribal people, inter-tribal clashes, insurgency, trans-border ethnic ties also adversely affect the security of the border areas. There is practically no physical barrier along the border either in the form of fences or border outposts and roads to ensure strict vigil.
* Close ethnic ties among the tribes such as Nagas, Kukis, Chin, etc., who live astride the border help the North East insurgents like Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN), the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA), in finding safe haven in Myanmar.
* The location of the boundary at the edge of the golden triangle facilitates the unrestricted illegal flows of drugs into Indian territory. Heroin is the main item of drug trafficking. The bulk of heroin enters India through the border town of Moreh in Manipur.
* The provision of allowing the tribal communities of both countries to travel up to 40 km across the border without any passport or visa has also contributed to increased smuggling in the region.
* Border trade along the India-Myanmar border is carried on from two posts viz. Moreh in Manipur and Zowkhatar in Mizoram.
Indo-Nepal Border
* India and Nepal have shared an open border since 1950.
* Provisions in the treaty, wherein citizens of both countries are given equal rights in matters of residence, acquisition of property, employment and movement in each others territory, provide for an open border between the two countries.
* During colonial times, the British had an interest in keeping the border open for two reasons. Firstly, impressed by the fighting skills of the Gurkhas, the British wanted to recruit them into the Indian Army. Secondly, Nepal was seen as a market for finished goods from India. To achieve these objectives, it was necessary to provide unrestricted cross border movement and hence the idea of an open border.
* There are many points of dispute along the Indo-Nepal border, mostly a result of the constantly shifting courses of the turbulent Himalayan rivers. Allegations of excesses such as intimidation, and forcible grabbing of land on either side add to the problem.
* An open border allows easy acess to terrorists and insurgents like United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA), the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB), and the Kamtapur Liberation Organization (KLO),etc.
* Illegal activities, such as smuggling of essential items and fake Indian currency, gun-running, and drugs and human trafficking are rampant.
* Unrestricted migration over the years has produced territorial pockets dominated by people originating from the other country. The net effect of such migration, in extreme cases, is the clamour for a homeland, as was witnessed in the hill district of Darjeeling adjoining the Indo-Nepal border.
Indo-Bhutan Border
* The process of demarcation of the India-Bhutan border started in 1961 and was completed in 2006. Like with Nepal, Indias boundary with Bhutan is also an open boundary.
* The boundary is demarcated except along the tri-junction with China.
* Indian insurgent groups such as the Kamtapur Liberation Organisation (KLO), United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) and National democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB) established camps in the southern districts of Bhutan.
* Taking advantage of the open border, these insurgents would sneak into Bhutan after carrying out extortions, killings and bomb blasts.
* This problem has been effectively dealt with during the Bhutanese governments Operation All Clear, which saw the destruction and uprooting of all insurgent camps in Bhutanese territory but still groups are active.
* Smuggling and trafficking are also rampant along the border.
* Bhutan and China have a border dispute on the northern and western side. In 2012, they decided to move ahead with border demarcation talks. This has special pertinence for India, because the western areas of the dispute have a direct bearing on the Siliguri Corridor.
* The narrow and vulnerable Chumbi valley between India (Sikkim) and Bhutan has a single arterial road and rail-route. So, the lack of space restricts the deployment of troops. The Chinese strategy of claiming areas in western Bhutan is to widen its shoulders to facilitate military manoeuvres in the Chumbi Valley. The Siliguri Corridor is about 500 km from the Chumbi Valley.
* In this light, India needs to enhance relations with Bhutan.From 1949 onwards they were governed by a Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship. Article 2 of the treaty was significant wherein the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external relations.
* The 1949 Treaty was revised in 2007 as it became democratic from monarchy. Article 2 was replaced with: Both shallcooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests.Neither Government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other.
Indo-Pakistan Border
* The India-Pakistan boundary is categorised under three different heads.
* The first is the international boundary also known as the Radcliff line.
* The second is the LoC, or the Cease Fire Line, which came into existence after the 1948 and 1971 wars between India and Pakistan.
* And the third is the actual ground position line (AGPL). Line that divides Indian and Pakistani troops in theSiachen Glacierregion. The line extends from the northernmost point of theLOC toIndira Col.
The LoC and the AGPL has been a scene of constant tensions
LoC has been vulnerable to constant infiltration by foreign terrorists, Kashmiri separatists and Pakistani army regulars for long.
* Like the Bangladesh boundary, the India-Pakistan boundary also does not follow any geographical barrier.
* Porosity of this border has facilitated various illegal activities such as smuggling of Heroin and fake Indian currency, drugs and arms trafficking, and infiltration.
* The villagers adjacent to the border are alleged to be involved in smuggling in a big way.
* Money laundering is also quite rampant along the border. A large scale hawala network is flourishing in Punjab, especially in Ludhiana.
* Border trade between the two countries takes place through Poonch-Rawalakote in Jammu region and Uri-Muzafarabad in Kashmir region.
* Although most trading posts are connected with fairly good roads, they remain vulnerable to landslides, insurgency, bad maintenance, etc. Also, trading through the border pass in the high mountains is restricted only to the summer months.
* The Sir Creek area, due to its peculiar terrain, makes the movement of border guarding forces very difficult and thus, provides scope for illegal fishing in the creeks. Pakistan claims the line to follow the eastern shore of the estuary while India claims a center line.
* Owing largely to the extremely sensitive state of theKashmirconflict, the Karakoram highway has strategic and military importance.
* Pakistan's Gwadar port to be connected to China. Once complete, the port, which is close to the Strait of Hormuz - a key shipping lane that serves as a gateway for a third of the world's traded oil - is seen to be opening up an energy and trade corridor from the Gulf, across Pakistan to western China, and could serve as potential Chinese naval base in the Arabian Sea. A worried India had, as a counter to China's presence in the region, announced that it will upgrade Iran's crucial Chabahar port that provides a transit route to land-locked Afghanistan.
India-China Border
* The line, which delineates the boundary between the two countries, is popularly called the McMahon line.
* In 1913, the British-India government had called a tripartite conference, in which the boundary between India and Tibet was formalised. This boundary is, however, disputed by China which terms it as illegal.
* India and China had never shared a common boundary till, China liberated Tibet in 1950. It was then that the India-Tibet boundary was transformed into an India-China boundary.
* Since 1954, China started claiming large tracts of territory and in 1957 China occupied Aksai Chin and built a road through it. This episode was followed by clashes along the border, which finally culminated in the border war of 1962.
* The boundary, which came into existence after the war, came to be known as Line of Actual Control (LAC).
* In 1993, the Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace and Tranquillity along the LAC was signed.
* In 1996, the Agreement on Confidence Building Measures (CBMs) in the Military Field along the LAC was signed.
* In 2003, two special representatives (one each from India and China) were appointed to find a political solution to the border dispute. No solution so far.
* Meanwhile, China has started laying claims on areas which were thought to be settled as for example the finger area in Sikkim.
* As regards border management, the India-China border throws up only a few challenges. There is hardly any circulation of people or goods between the two countries through the border.
* Some tribes like Monpas, Sherdukpens, Membas, Khambas and Bhutias had social and cultural ties with people across the border. Many other tribes also frequented the markets of Tibet to buy and sell products, but all these stopped after the 1962 war.
* Border trade between India and China resumed in 1992-93, when Shipki La in Himachal Pradesh and Lipu Lekh pass in Uttarakhand were opened. In 2003, MoU was signed between Sikkim and Tibet to open Nathu La for trading purpose.
* The volume of trade in these trading points is not large. However, large scale smuggling of Chinese electronic and other consumer goods take place through these border points.
* The dams on Brahmaputra River. This has alarmed Indian side as it can have a major impact on ecological system. If China blocks the water in Brahmaputra it will lead to famine in North eastern region of India. Further, the dams will block the flow of minerals through water and block the fish migration. There are also reports suggesting that China in the long run wants to divert this water towards its water stressed northern and eastern regionwhich is enough to increase Indias water crisis.
* China has at least 25 nuclear-tipped medium-range ballistic missiles bases in Tibet, along with an undisclosed number of nuclear-configured short-range tactical missiles. These deployments are singularly India-specific. Thus it has become imperative for India to build credible deterrence with nuclear weapons.
Challenges to Coastal Security and Island Territories
The coastline is highly indented with numerous creeks, rivers and streams along with inhabited and uninhabited islands, sandbars, and mangrove forests. These water channels, which run deep inside the land, render the coastline porous and hence vulnerable to cross-border infiltration, smuggling, and arms and drugs trafficking.
* Existence of mangrove forests, sandbars and uninhabited islands along the coast provide ideal hideaways for infiltrators, criminals and contraband.
* In recent years, the use of sea by terrorists to carry out attacks as was seen during the 1993 Mumbai serial blasts and the November 2008 attack on Mumbai, have also added a new dimension to the vulnerability of the coastline. The matter is made worse by the existence of several high value targets such as oil refineries, atomic power plants, space stations, ports and naval bases along the coastline.
* Straying of both Indian fishermen into each others territorial waters and their subsequent arrests has also been a perennial source of concern. Since these boats have Indian make and registration number, they could easily evade attempts by Indian security agencies to track them. This is what seems to have happened when the Coast Guard let off the Kuber in which the terrorists travelled in November 2008.
* India also has Island Territories in its eastern and western seaboards. Andaman and Nicobar comprise 572 islands, but only 36 of them are inhabited, whereas ten of the 36 islands of Lakshadweep archipelago are inhabited. Their strategic location, i.e. proximity to the important Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOC) and Southeast Asian and African countries coupled with considerable distance from the mainland add to the Island Territories vulnerabilities.
* Intelligence reports have suggested that many uninhabited islands are being misused by terrorist groups and criminal gangs as transit points for smuggling arms and narcotics. Lashkar is increasingly using the uninhabited islands off Lakshadweep as launching platforms for attacks against India.
* The Andaman and Nicobar islands have seen large scale influx of illegal migrants from Bangladesh, Sri Lanka (Tamils) Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.
* Indian Ocean has been a theatre of intense rivalries between great powers, mostly extra regional powers. China, in recent years has been quite active in the Indian Ocean region. China has helped Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to built ports, which could be utilised by China during adverse times.
* Today, nearly 80 % of Chinese trade, particularly oil, and 97% of Indias trade are through the sea lanes of Indian Ocean. India considers Indian Ocean as its own lake and justifies its legitimacy in these waters. On the other hand, increasing economic interest and the need to protect its trade lanes in this region has made China increase its naval presence. For this purpose China has collaborated and developed sea ports in a number of littoral states surrounding India. These ports can be used both for civil and military purposes. This strategy is popularly known as String of Pearls, which India feels is to keep India boxed within South Asia and contain its Influence over Indian Ocean.
* India has tried to counter balance this strategy with its Necklace of diamond. Under this strategy, it is building military relations with key countries in the Indian and Pacific Ocean with Australia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, with our neighbouring countries in South Asia along the Chinese trade lanes. This will also enhance its surveillance capacity in the Straits of Malaccaand thus helps in curbing piracy. If one closely looks at the region stretching from Indonesia to Japan it resembles a necklace with Australia as its diamond.
* Further it has also developed relations with the gulf countries particularly Iran where it has invested in developing Chabahar port to counter Chinas Gwadar port in Pakistan.
Governments Response
The concept of border management entered the government dictionary only in the
wake of the Kargil conflict of 1999.
* Based on the recommendations of the Kargil Review Committee, in 2001 the Government set up a Task Force on Border Management under the Chairmanship of Madhav Godbole to review the national security system as a whole.
* It recommended that a Department of Border Management be created under the Ministry of Home Affairs, which would focus solely on border issues.
* To enforce accountability, the Report recommended that one border guarding force should be deployed in each stretch of the border and it should not be distracted from its principal task and deployed for other internal security duties as was the case since independence.
* It also recommended the establishment of a marine police force, strengthening of Coast Guard and setting up of an apex institution for coordinating various maritime issues.
Governments Approach
For Securing the Border government used 4 components
* Guarding: BSF for Pakistan, Bangladesh borders,
Assam Rifles (AR) for Myanmar border, the
Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) for China border,
Sahastra Seema Bal (SSB) for Nepal, Bhutan borders
Border out posts (BOP), floating BOPs have been deployed. Floating BOPs function as mother ships from where patrolling vessels are sent for regular patrolling of the creeks and rivers. Use of Technology like GPS, cameras, Flood lights, infrared detectors.
* Regulation: Regulating the movement of people and trade through issuance of Multi purpose national IDs (MNIC), development of integrated check post (ICPS) which would house all regulatory agencies like Immigration, Customs, border security, etc together with support facilities like parking, warehousing, banking, hotels etc. in a single complex
* Development of border areas: Lack of economic opportunities makes the border population more susceptible to take up smuggling and trafficking. Keeping in mind these problems, government initiated the border area development programme (BADP) in 1987.
Northeast India, which shares 98 per cent of its borders with Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh, has been plagued by insurgency and under development. Its strategic location as a gateway to South East Asia has propelled the government to undertake various developmental programmes like National Highway Development Programme, Special Accelerated Road Development Programme for the Northeast Region (SARDP-NE).
* Bilateral Institutional Mechanisms
* For Securing the coast, the government implemented a three layered mechanism.
* Outermost layer: the Indian Navy patrols the high seas and carries out aerial reconnaissance with ship-based aircraft.
* Intermediate layer: comprising of the Exclusive Economic Zone is patrolled by the Coast Guard.
* Territorial waters: patrolled by the Coastal Police.
Major ports of the country made International Ship and Port Security (ISPS) Code compliant like use of Vessel Traffic Management System (VTMS) and Automated Identification System (AIS). These ports are guarded by CISF. Multi purpose identity cards for all fishermen. Navy to have Sagar Prahari
Bal force.
* For Securing Island Territories: set up a joint command in Andaman and Nicobar called the Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC) comprising personnel of the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and the Coast Guard. Similarly for Lakshwadeep.
* Land Ports Authority of India (LPAI): The LPAI was estd. in 2010 to provide better administration and cohesive management of entry points/land ports on the land borders and would be vested with the powers on the lines of Airports Authority of India.
* Joint Coastal Patrolling like joint patrolling of Gujarat and Maharashtra Coast
* Spy Satellites: RISAT-2 with the help of Israel (2008) and RISAT-1 which is indigenous (2011)
References
* www.idsa.in
* Google
Name Ankush Pratap Singh
